FARM 
S  H  O  P 
WORK 


BRACE  AND MAYNE 

IC-NRLF 


GIFT  OF 


FARM  SHOP  WORK 

PRACTICAL  MANUAL  TRAINING 


BY 

GEORGE   M.   BRACE 

DIRECTOR    OF    MANUAL   TRAINING,    CENTRAL   HIGH    SCHOOL 
ST.    PAUL,    MINNESOTA 

AND 

D.  D.  MAYNE 

PRINCIPAL    OF   SCHOOL   OF   AGRICULTURE    AND    PROFESSOR 

OF   AGRICULTURAL    PEDAGOGICS,    UNIVERSITY 

OF    MINNESOTA 


WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION 

BY 
C.  A.  PROSSER 

SECRETARY    OF  THE    NATIONAL   SOCIETY    FOR 
THE    PROMOTION    OF   INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION 


AMERICAN   BOOK   COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  CINCINNATI  CHICAGO 


COPYRIGHT,  1915,  BY 
GEORGE  M.  BRACE  AND  D.  D.  MAYNE 


FARM   SHOP  WORK 
E.  P.    2 


INTRODUCTION 

BY  C.  A.  PROSSER 

SECRETARY  OF  THE  NATIONAL  SOCIETY  FOR  THE  PROMOTION 
OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

THIS  book  is  written  primarily  for  pupils  taking 
agriculture  in  elementary  and  secondary  schools,  and 
for  pupils  in  the  practical  arts  work  of  schools  in 
rural  communities ;  but  it  also  has  .  suggestions  of 
great  merit  for  farmers  and  others  who  have  to  deal 
in  any  way  with  the  varied  repair  and  construction 
problems  of  farm  and  village  life. 

Not  until  the  rural  schools  realize  that  their  manual 
training  and  shop  work  must  be  entirely  different  from 
that  of  the  city  schools  will  they  serve  properly  the 
vocational  needs  of  the  children  who  are  to  spend  their 
lives  on  the  farm  or  in  the  village. 

The  aim  of  the  practical  arts  courses  in  agricultural 
communities  should  be  to  give  the  boy  at  least  an 
elementary  experience  in  every  form  of  manual  work 
required  to  make  an  independent  and  successful  farmer 
on  his  home  acres.  Such  training  will  make  the  farm 
more  attractive.  It  will  also  equip  the  farmer  for  more 
successful  work  in  agriculture,  both  because  he  is  pre- 
pared to  meet  the  everyday  demands  of  his  calling  and 
because  he  is  saved  the  time  and  expense  of  relying  on 
the  village  mechanic  for  much  that  the  school  should 
prepare  him  to  do. 


iv  INTRODUCTION 

In  most  of  our  thinking  to-day  on  the  subject  of 
manual  training  or  practical  arts  in  the  rural  schools, 
we  have  stopped  with  the  idea  of  woodwork.  Too 
often  this  woodwork  is  taught  with  little  reference  to 
its  connection  with  the  home  life  and  agricultural 
career  of  the  boy.  The  courses  and  methods  have 
been  borrowed  all  too  frequently  from  the  work  of  the 
city  schools. 

The  farm  boy  and  man  must  work  in  wood :  in  the 
making  of  fences,  in  the  repair  of  tools  and  machinery, 
and  in  the  repair  and  construction  of  farm  implements, 
conveniences,  and  buildings.  It  is  far  more  important 
that  he  should  know  how  to  deal  with  wood  in  these 
things  than  that  he  should  be  highly  skilled  in  the 
making  of  mission  furniture.  It  is  training  in  the 
work  of  the  ordinary  rough  carpenter  rather  than  in 
that  of  the  finished  furniture  maker  that  will  be  most 
beneficial  to  the  farmer.  He  needs  to  know  how  to 
handle  all  the  ordinary  tools  of  the  carpenter  and  how 
to  put  wood  together.  His  practice  should  be  on  farm 
things  and  should  result  in  a  usable  output  of  farm 
things. 

An  outfit  of  ordinary  farm  implements  of  the  simplest 
kind  can  be  constructed  for  the  use  of  the  school.  Pu- 
pils should  be  encouraged  to  bring  from  home  articles 
that  need  to  be  repaired.  They  should  also  be  en- 
couraged to  set  up  a  workshop  on  the  farm  and  to  do 
more  extensive  and  ambitious  repair  and  construction 
jobs,  as  supplementary  to  the  school  instruction.  It 
goes  without  saying  that  successful  results  can  only  be 
secured  when  the  teacher  in  charge  of  this  training  is 
not  only  able  to  sense  the  demands  of  the  farm  home 


INTRODUCTION  V 

by  having  actually  experienced  them,  but  is  also  able 
intelligently  to  direct  the  efforts  of  the  boy. 

The  farmer  must  know  how  to  shape  iron  for  uses  in 
all  sorts  of  things.  The  school  should  be  equipped 
with  a  small  forge,  and  the  boy  be  trained  in  the  forg- 
ing and  tempering  of  iron,  the  cutting  and  soldering 
of  sheet  metal.  He  should  be  trained  to  think  his 
problem  through  by  making  at  least  rough  diagrams 
of  his  plans  in  dealing  with  material  of  all  kinds. 

He  should  be  able  to  meet  successfully  emergency 
repairs  on  harness  and  belting.  This  means  that  the 
school  should  give  him  an  elementary  experience  in  the 
cutting,  shaping,  fitting,  and  sewing  of  leather,  which 
can  only  result  from  training  in  actual  repair  problems. 

The  use  of  cement  on  the  farm  is  increasing  enor- 
mously. The  ordinary  farmer  can  now  with  some  in- 
struction use  it  successfully  for  most  of  the  purposes  for 
which  it  is  employed  in  the  country  home.  Hence  it 
follows  that  the  school  should  give  the  boy  instruction 
in  such  things  as  the  making  of  molds  for  cement  work, 
the  laying  of  foundations  and  the  construction  of  posts, 
floors,  and  walks. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  questions  confronting  the 
work  in  industrial  education  to-day  is  the  kind  of  in- 
dustrial training  which  should  be  offered  in  villages 
and  small  towns.  The  diversified  character  of  its  in- 
dustrial life,  sometimes  the  entire  absence  of  manufac- 
turing, together  with  the  certainty  that  only  a  small 
number  of  persons  would  care  to  be,  or  should  be, 
trained  for  any  one  occupation,  make  it  impossible 
for  these  small  communities  to  undertake  any  program 
of  industrial  education  which  aims  to  give  specific 


vi  INTRODUCTION 

preparation  for  any  one  industry  or  trade.  This  has, 
in  many  cases,  prevented  such  places  from  under- 
taking any  work  whatever  of  this  character. 

The  solution  of  the  problem  in  my  opinion  lies  in 
a  course  in  the  practical  arts  in  the  upper  grades  and 
in  the  high  school,  which  will  serve  a  double  aim.  It  will 
give  the  village  boy  an  experience  in  manual  work  from 
which  he  will  derive  all  the  customary  values,  and  which 
will  fit  him  to  be  a  "jack  of  all  trades,"  if  he  so  elects. 
At  the  same  time  it  will  give  the  boy  from  the  farm  a 
training  in  a  range  of  activities  which  will  fit  him  to 
meet,  as  a  "jack  of  all  trades,"  the  ordinary  everyday 
demands  of  farm  life. 

This  book  has  been  written  from  such  points  of  view 
as  the  foregoing,  and  will  find  its  largest  field  of  useful- 
ness as  a  text  or  reference  book  in  the  hands  of  pupils 
of  rural  elementary  and  secondary  schools.  It  offers  a 
course  of  instruction  in  farm  shop  work  which  includes 
working  the  four  fundamental  materials  used  on  the  farm 
—  wood,  metal,  leather,  and  cement.  All  the  jobs  under- 
taken by  the  pupil  deal  in  a  very  practical  way  with  the 
repair  or  construction  of  things  which  are  used  in  the 
actual  work  of  the  farm.  For  example,  the  woodwork- 
ing covers  instruction  in  the  making  of  the  bench  hook, 
level  square,  sawbuck,  porch  chair,  clothesrack,  clothes- 
tree,  seed  testing  box,  sheep  feeding  trough,  trap  nest, 
chicken  feed  box,  wagon-jack,  hammer  handle,  plank 
drag  for  roads,  sewing  horse,  trussed  ladder,  combina- 
tion ladder,  farmer's  level,  corn  rack,  cattle  rack,  hog 
cot,  wagon  box,  workbench,  tool  chest. 

The  treatment  of  each  task  which  the  pupil  is  to 
undertake  is  excellent  from  the  standpoint  of  good 


INTRODUCTION  vii 

teaching.  Throughout  the  language  is  simple  and  the 
explanations  and  directions  clear.  Each  new  article  to 
be  made  is  described  and  its  use  explained  at  the  outset. 
Numerous  illustrations  illuminate  the  text. 

From  the  outset,  the  pupil  is  engaged  in  the  making 
of  usable  things.  The  assignment  of  work  is  by 
separate  jobs  or  projects  to  individual  pupils.  The 
aim  is  to  lead  him  to  an  understanding  through  prac- 
tice rather  than  through  either  theory  alone  or  through 
unapplied  exercises.  The  realness  and  usefulness  of 
the  work  performed  will  undoubtedly  appeal  to  the 
interest  of  both  the  boy  and  his  parent.  The  pupil 
is  led  gradually  to  rely  more  and  more  upon  the  text 
and  less  upon  the  teacher,  which  promotes  self-help, 
an  indispensable  asset  to  the  worker  on  the  farm  and 
in  the  farm  shop.  The  book  offers  on  every  page  ex- 
cellent suggestions  to  the  boy  who  has  unoccupied 
time  on  his  hands  and  makes  possible  school  credit  for 
shop  work  done  at  home.  Practice  and  thinking  about 
the  practice,  doing  useful  things  while  at  the  same 
time  the  work  is  directed  and  interpreted  —  this  is 
the  cardinal  principle  on  which  the  treatment  of  practi- 
cal arts  work  has  been  based  throughout. 

The  farmer  will  find  the  book  a  mine  of  information 
as  to  all  such  things  as  the  care  and  use  of  shop  tools, 
the  repair  and  construction  of  farm  implements,  devices 
and  buildings  of  all  kinds.  School  boys  will  have  in  it 
an  admirable  guide  in  undertaking  to  make  either  at 
home  or  at  school  useful  things  which  have  a  definite 
and  helpful  place  in  country,  village,  and  town  life.  It 
should  give  them  a  genuine  interest  in  the  repair  and 
construction  of  new  as  well  as  familiar  things  and  make 


viii  INTRODUCTION 

them  self-reliant  workers  relieved  from  dependence  on 
the  specialist  for  much  of  the  ordinary  mechanical  work 
of  the  country  district. 

The  book  carries  a  special  message  also  to  the  teacher 
who  is  in  any  way  engaged  in  the  teaching  of  manual 
training,  practical  arts,  or  shop  work  in  the  rural, 
consolidated,  or  agricultural  high  school.  Throughout, 
the  vocational  opportunities  of  practical  arts  work 
in  its  application  to  agricultural  life  are  emphasized. 
Teachers  are  too  often  singularly  lacking  in  a  concep- 
tion of  the  purpose  and  possibilities  of  farm  shop  work 
as  it  has  been  taught  in  the  schools.  When  they  have 
been  trained  in  manual  training  classes  dealing  almost 
entirely  with  the  problems  of  the  work  in  cities  or  with 
more  or  less  traditional  courses,  they  find  it  difficult  to 
adjust  their  courses  and  methods  to  meet  rural  condi- 
tions and  requirements.  They  need,  as  all  of  us  as  teach- 
ers do,  to  have  their  work  interpreted  in  terms  of  its  use 
in  the  lives  of  their  students,  as  the  authors  have  done. 

Even  the  unskilled  teacher  of  the  country  school  en- 
tirely without  experience  in  handling  the  matter,  will  find 
in  the  book  a  wealth  of  suggestions  as  to  what  country 
boys  might  do,  and  how  they  can  be  helped  to  do  it. 

The  authors  have  brought  to  their  task  a  long, 
varied,  and  intimate  experience  in  dealing  with  the 
farm  and  school  problems  of  the  great  agricultural 
state  of  Minnesota.  They  have  sensed  a  real  need  of 
the  rural  schools  and  have  offered  what  in  my  opinion 
is  the  only  sound  basis  for  the  solution  of  "prevoca- 
tional,"  "practical  arts,"  "manual  training/'  or  "in- 
dustrial training"  for  the  children  of  our  small  towns 
and  rural  districts. 


PREFACE 

THE  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  provide  a  series  of 
projects  in  woodworking,  blacksmithing,  cement  and 
concrete  work,  and  harness  mending.  These  exercises 
will  not  only  furnish  valuable  training  in  the  practical 
arts,  but  will  also  result  in  the  making  of  many  things 
that  are  of  great  use  on  the  farm. 

In  case  the  time  devoted  to  industrial  work  is  too 
short  for  the  class  to  do  all  the  regular  exercises  pro- 
vided in  this  book,  the  teacher  should  select  those  that 
involve  the  uses  of  the  most  common  tools  and  the 
description  of  the  most  important  processes.  If  more 
time  is  allotted  to  industrial  work  than  is  necessary 
for  the  regular  exercises,  the  supplementary  projects 
may  be  undertaken.  The  making  of  furniture  should 
not  be  commenced  until  the  pupil  has  mastered  the 
woodworking  tools. 

The  pupil  should  be  required  to  make  in  pencil  a 
complete  working  drawing  with  full-size  details  of  the 
project  he  is  about  to  make.  Plans  for  farm  buildings 
should  be  required  as  supplementary  work  in  drawing. 
The  teacher  should  standardize  his  work  by  requiring 
a  definite  procedure  to  be  followed  in  tool  operations. 
After  a  standard  of  manipulation  has  been  adopted, 
the  work  of  the  class  should  be  held  to  that  standard. 

The  authors  are  indebted  to  C.  G.  Schulz,  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction,  Minnesota,  to  A.  V. 


x  PREFACE 

Storm,  Professor  of  Agricultural  Education,  University 
of  Minnesota,  and  to  many  teachers  of  manual  training 
in  the  rural  communities  of  Minnesota  for  their  help- 
ful suggestions  in  the  preparation  of  the  manuscript. 
Credit  for  the  exercises  given  under  the  subject  of 
Blacksmithing  is  due  Mr.  A.  D.  Johnston,  Instructor 
in  Forging,  Agricultural  College  of  Minnesota.  Thanks 
are  due  the  several  publications  which  have  granted 
permission  to  use  the  designs  accredited  to  them  in 
the  text. 


CONTENTS 


WOODWORKING 


I.  BENCH  HOOK     . 

II.  LEVEL  SQUARE  . 

III.  SAWBUCK    . 

IV.  FOLDING  SAWBUCK     . 
V.  PORCH  CHAIR     . 

VI.  CLOTHES  RACK  . 

VII.  CLOTHES  TREE  . 

VIII.  SEED  TESTING  Box   . 

IX.  SHEEP-FEEDING  TROUGH    . 

X.  CHICKEN  FEED  Box  .     '  . 

XL  TRAP  NEST 

XII.  WAGON  JACK      .        . 

XIII.  HAMMER  HANDLE 

XIV.  PLANK  DRAG  FOR  ROADS  . 
XV.  SEWING  HORSE  . 

XVI.  TRUSSED  LADDER 

XVII.  COMBINATION  LADDER 

XVIII.  FARMER'S  LEVEL 

XIX.  LEVELING  ROD  . 

XX.  THREE  HORSE  EVENER 

XXI.  FARM  GATE 

XXII.  CORN  RACK 

XXIII.  CATTLE  RACK     . 

XXIV.  HOG  COT    . 

XXV.  WAGON  Box       ... 

XXVI.  WORK  BENCH    . 

XXVII.  TOOL  CHEST      . 

XXVIII.  TIMBER       . 

XXIX.  WOODWORKING  TOOLS 


PAGE 

i 

10 

20 
27 
31 
36 

39 
44 
49 
56 
61 
66 
7i 
75 
79 
85 
89 
96 
105 
109 

"3 
118 

122 
127 

133 
I38 
I46 
159 
I65 


Xll 


CONTENTS 


LESSON 

XXX. 

USES  OF  THE  STEEL  SQUARE          . 

PAGE 

•        177 

XXXI. 

GLUE  IN  WOODWORKING        

.        I85 

XXXII. 

FILING  SAWS  AND  GRINDING  EDGE  TOOLS    . 

.        I89 

BLACKSMITHING 

XXXIII. 

THE  FORGE  AND  ANVIL          .        .        .        .        * 

.        I98 

XXXIV. 

STAPLE     .         .         .         .        .         ...... 

.       201 

XXXV. 

GATE  HOOK    

.      204 

XXXVI. 

BOLT        .        . 

.       207 

XXXVII. 

CHAIN  AND  HOOK  .        .        .        .        .        .        . 

.      210 

XXXVIII. 

SWIVEL    .        .        .        .        .  '      .   -   %j.     . 

.      217 

XXXIX. 

TONGS     ...        .    •    t      *..        *  *  ~^  •     '  .        . 

.      221 

XL. 

WRENCH  .                 .        .        .        .        ... 

.      224 

XLL 

HARNESS  HOOK       .        '.       •  .        .        .        .        .  •" 

.      227 

XLII. 

IRONS  FOR  WAGON  JACK        . 

.      229 

XLIII. 

IRONS  FOR  THREE-HORSE  EVENER          .  •..    . 

.      230 

XLIV. 

IRONS  FOR  PLANK  DRAG        .        .        .        .        . 

•      234 

XLV. 

IRONS  FOR  COMBINATION  LADDER  .... 

•      235 

XLVI. 

IRON  FOR  LEVELING  ROD       ..... 

•      237 

XLVII. 

IRONS  FOR  FARM  GATE  

.      238 

XLVIII. 

IRONS  FOR  CATTLE  RACK  AND  CORN  RACK  . 

•      239 

XLIX. 

IRONS  FOR  WAGON  Box         ..... 

.      240 

L. 

TOOL  STEEL    ...        .        .        .        .        . 

.      242 

CEMENT  AND   CONCRETE  WORK 

LI. 

CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE          

.      246 

LII. 

2C2 

LIII. 

FOUNDATION  WALLS  AND  STEPS     .        .        *        . 

.      256 

LIV. 

CONCRETE  TROUGHS        .         .         .         ...    . 

•      259 

LV. 

FENCE  POSTS  '      .        ,   ,; 

264 

LEATHER  WORK 

LVI 

269 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR  ADDITIONAL  WORK       . 

•      275 

INDEX 

287 

WOODWORKING 

LESSON  I 
BENCH   HOOK 

STOCK 

i  pc.  white  pine  J"X4}"X8}"  4  screws  ij",  No.  8,  F.  H.  B. 
i  pc.  white  pine  f"Xif"X4l"  (F.  H.  B.  =  flat  head,  bright) 
I  pc.  white  pinef"Xif"X4" 

TOOLS 

Rule  Marking  gauge  Plane 

Try-square  Saw  Brace  and  bit 

Screw  driver 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Laying  out. 

2.  Surfacing  one  side. 

3.  Planing  one  edge. 

4.  Squaring  one  end. 

5.  Laying  out  length,  width,  thickness. 

6.  Planing  to  thickness. 

7.  Sawing  to  length. 

8.  Planing  to  length. 

9.  Sawing  to  width. 
10.  Planing  to  width, 
n.  Making  blocks. 

12.  Laying  out  screw  holes. 

13.  Boring  screw  holes. 

14.  Assembling. 

In  explaining  this  first  exercise,  it  is  assumed  that 

i 


;V         \/  i  |/;  WOODWORKING 

e.  pirgi)  k^ov^J  notijiqg.  about  the  operations.  Even 
though  he  has  performed  some  of  them  many  times 
before,  it  will  be  to  his  advantage  to  follow  directions 
as  carefully  as  though  it  were  the  first  time  he  ever 


-e 


e- 

hf 


K- '/ 1 

FIG.  i.  —  WORKING  DRAWING  OF  BENCH  HOOK. 

held  tools  in  his  hands.      Follow  directions  carefully. 

Do  not  hurry. 

i.    Lay  out  the  dimensions  on  a  piece  of  white  pine 

board.     Some  allowance  must  be  made  for  squaring  up, 

so  the  pieces  should  be 
laid  out  a  little  larger 
than  the  finished  dimen- 
sions. (Laying  out  means 
marking  the  lines  that 
represent  the  shape  and 
sizes  of  the  various  pieces 
which,  when  -cut  out 
and  put  together,  or  as- 
sembled, make  the  exer- 
cise.) The  first  opera- 
tion in  laying  out  is  to 
select  an  end  nearly 
square  with  one  edge  of 
the  board.  If  neither 
end  is  square,  square  a 


• 

-0 


T 
tf 


FIG.  2.  — WORKING  DRAWING  OF  BENCH 
HOOK.    TOP  AND  SIDE  VIEWS. 


BENCH   HOOK 


line  across  one  end  with  a  try-square  and  saw  on  this 
line. 

With  the  rule  measure  off  8J"  from  this  end.      In 
measuring  with  a  rule,  do  not  lay  it  flat  .down  on  the 
board ;    stand  it  on  edge  so  that  the  marks  on  the 
rule  meet  the  surface 
of  the  board.     In  this 
way    the    knife    blade 
can  touch  the  mark  on 
the  rule  and  the  wood 
at     the      same     time. 
(See  Fig.   3.)      If  this 
method  is  followed  al- 
ways, there  will  be  no 
excuse  for  making  mis- 
takes in  measurements ; 

if  the  rule    is  laid    flat,     FlG   3>_pOSITION  OF  RULE  IN  MEASURING. 

the  measurements  will 

likely  be  inaccurate.  When  it  is  necessary  to  make 
more  than  one  measurement,  if  the  rule  is  not  raised 
from  the  work,  the  chance  of  making  mistakes  is  there- 
by lessened.  If  the 
board  is  too  wide,  the 
width  should  be  meas- 
ured also. 

With  the  try-square 
on  the  8J"  mark,  line 
across  the  board.  If 
the  board  is  wider  than 
the  length  of  the  blade  of  the  try-square,  use  a  car- 
penter's steel  square,  or  extend  the  length  of  the 
blade  as  shown  in  Fig.  4,  by  placing  a  rule  on 


FlG.   4.  —  SQUARING  ACROSS   A   WlDE 

BOARD. 


WOODWORKING 


the  board  against  the 
blade  of  the  try-square, 
and  lining  across  with 
this.  In  using  the  try- 
square  place  the  knife 
blade  on  the  point ; 
move  the  blade  of  the 

FIG.  5.  — PLACING  THE  KNIFE  BLADE  ON  POINT,     try-square     up     to    the 

knife  blade  and  line  across.     (Figs.  5  and  6.) 

2.  Surfacing  one  side.  —  Select  a  surface  that  is  flat 
and  without  wind  ;  with 
this  surface  up,  lay  the 
board  on  the  bench 
with  one  end  against 
the  bench  stop,  which  is 
some  kind  of  a  wooden 
or  iron  plug  projecting 
from  one  end  of  the 

bench;     and    with     the  FIG.  6. -USING  THE  TRY-SQUARE. 

plane,  plane  the  surface  smooth  and  flat.     Test  the  sur- 
face across  the  grain  and  with  the  grain  by  the  try-square 

as  in  Fig.  7.  (Wind 
is  a  twisting  curve 
or  warp  in  some 
boards.) 

3.  Planing  one 
edge.  —  When  one 
surface  is  planed 
smooth  and  true, 
two  witness  marks 
(see  Fig.  7)  are 

FIG.  7.— TESTING  SURFACE  OF  BOARD.  made   on    this    SUr- 


BENCH   HOOK 


face  near  one  edge ;  this  edge  is  next  to  be  trued  up 
square  with  the  surface.     Place  the  board  in  the  vise 


X 


FIG.  8.  —  USING  TRY-SQUARE  TO  TEST  A  SQUARE  CORNER. 

and  plane  until  the  edge  is  square  with  the  surface 
just  finished.  Its  truth 
can  be  tested  by  the  try- 
square.  (See  Fig.  8.) 
When  true,  two  more 
witness  marks  are 
drawn  on  the  edge  end- 
ing at  the  surface. 

4.  Squaring  one  end. 
—  In  squaring  up  one 
end,  place  the  board  up- 
right in  the  vise  with 
the  finished  edge  next 
to  the  body ;  when  planing  across  the  grain,  to  prevent 
the  blade  from  splintering  off  pieces  from  the  farther 

FARM    SHOP    WORK — 2 


FIG.  g.  —  ONE  METHOD  OF  PREVENTING 
SPLINTERING  IN  USING  PLANE. 


WOODWORKING 


edge,  either  place  a  block  of  waste  material  back  of  the 
farther  edge  and  on  a  level  with  the  end  of  the  board, 
£,  Fig.  9,  and  plane  across  this,  allowing  the  splinters 
to  come  from  the  waste  material ;  or,  if  there  is  enough 
waste  material  in  the  board,  chisel  off  one  corner  on 

the  edge  farthest  from 
the  body.  (See  Fig. 
10.)  The  end  must  be 
made  square  with  the 
finished  edge,  also  with 
the  finished  surface. 

5.  Laying  out  length, 
width,  thickness. — 
When  one  end  is 

FIG.  io.  — ANOTHER   METHOD  OF  PREVENTING  squared     Up,     lay     OUt 
SPLINTERING  IN  USING  PLANE.  the  lengtn  by  measur- 

ing 8"  from  the  squared  end  and  square  across  with  a 
knife  and  try-square,  resting  the  beam  against  the 
finished  edge. 

Lay  out  the  width  with  the  marking  gauge ;  set  the 
guide  of  the  gauge  at  the  4"  mark  on  the  beam  and, 
with  the  guide  resting  against  the  finished  edge,  gauge 
the  entire  length  of  the  board.  The  thickness  is  laid 
out  with  the  marking  gauge  set  at  f".  The  proper 
way  to  set  the  guide  of  the  marking  gauge  is  to  measure 
with  the  rule  the  distance  required  from  the  guide 
to  the  spur,  as  shown  in  Fig.  n.  In  holding  the  gauge 
for  lining,  Fig.  12  shows  how  the  tool  is  grasped  in  the 
hand  with  the  thumb  in  front  of  the  spur  and  the  first 
finger  over  the  guide.  Tip  the  beam  so  the  spur  just 
touches  the  wood.  In  laying  out  the  thickness  of  the 
board,  measure  off  f ",  and  with  the  guide  resting  against 


BENCH   HOOK 


FlG- 


—  SETTING  THE  GUIDE  OF  THE  MARKING 
GAUGE. 


the  finished  surface  gauge  around  on  all  four  edges.    The 

gauge  should  be  used  in  laying  out  the  width.     Where 

large    measurements 

are    required,    it     is 

very  difficult  to  hold 

the  gauge  so  it  will 

score    accurately; 

and,      besides,     the 

beam     is     not     long 

enough  for  very  large 

measurements. 

6.  Planing  to  thick- 
ness. —  When      the 
thickness    has    been 
gauged,    the     board 
should  be  planed   to 

this  thickness.     The  same  care  that  was  used  on  the 
other  sides  should  be  exercised  in  planing  this  surface. 

7.  Sawing  to  length.  —  When  this  work  is  done,  the 

piece  should  be  sawed 
to  length,  sawing  just 
outside  the  knife  mark 
made  in  laying  out  the 
length.  It  is  necessary 
to  leave  a  little  wood 
outside  the  line  so  it 
will  be  possible  to  plane 

the  end  down  smooth  and  square  without  making  the 

board  too  short. 

8.  Planing  to  length. — The  end  should  be  planed  after 
it  is  sawed  and  the  same  precautions  should  be  observed 
as  were  indicated  in  Operation  4. 


FIG.  12.  —  USING  THE  MARKING  GAUGE. 


8  WOODWORKING 

9.  Sawing  to  width. — The  next  operation  is  to  saw  to 
width,  sawing  just  outside  the  line. 

10.  Planing  to  width.  —  The  operation  of  planing  to 
width  must  be  carefully  done  in  order  to  get  the  edge 
square  with  the  surface,  and  at  the  same  time  not  to 
plane  below  the  line. 

11.  Making  blocks. — The  next  operation  is  laying  out 
the  two  blocks,  one  to  be  used  on  the  upper  side  and 
one  on  the  lower  side  of  the  board.     The  method  of 
laying  out,  sawing,  and  planing  these  pieces  is  the  same 
as  that  used  in  finishing  the  board,  so  the  directions 
will  not  be  repeated  here. 

12.  Laying  out  screw  holes. — After  the  two  blocks  are 
finished,  the  screw  holes  must  be  located.     With  the 

ruler  or  try-square,  measure  in 

/—>e-3 /\   from  each  end  \"   and   mark ; 

[ y      then  set  the  gauge  at  \"  and 

FIG.  13.— LOCATION  OF  SCREW    line  across  these  marks,  gauging 

from  the  opposite  edges   at  A 
and  B,  Fig.  13. 

13.  Boring  screw  holes.  —  The  next  operation  is  boring 
the  holes.     Select  a  gimlet  bit  the  same  size   as   the 
screws  and  bore  through  the  pieces  at  the  places  marked. 

In  boring,  place  the  screw  point  on  the  mark  and 
hold  the  brace  so  that  the  bit  is  perpendicular,  then 
with  the  left  hand  on  the  knob  and  holding  the  sweep 
with  the  right  hand,  place  the  forehead  on  the  left 
hand,  pressing  down  so  as  to  make  the  bit  cut. 

14.  Assembling.  --The  last  operation  is  assembling; 
this  is  putting  together  the  various  pieces,  completing 
the  project.     Place  the  shorter  piece  on  one  end,  as  in 
Fig.  14,  and  clamp  it  in  the  vise  with  one  edge  flush, 


BENCH   HOOK  9 

or  even,  with  one  end  of  the  board,  and  one  end  flush 
with  the  left-hand  edge  of  the  board.     Put  the  screws  in 
and  screw  them  down  with  a 
screw  driver  until  the  head  is 
flush  with  the  surface  of  the 
wood.     Turn  the  board  over      , 
and  fasten  the  other  piece  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  other 

FIG.  14.  —  BENCH  HOOK  ASSEMBLED. 


end,  with  one  edge  flush  with 


the  end  of  the  board. 

If  the  work  has  been  done  accurately,  the  pieces  will 
fit  nicely,  and  when  placed  in  position  will  be  square 
with  the  edges  of  the  board,  and  the  longer  piece  will 
just  reach  from  edge  to  edge  of  the  board.  No  holes 
are  needed  in  the  board  for  the  screws,  as  the  wood  is 
soft  white  pine ;  but  if  it  were  to  be  made  of  hard 
wood,  it  would  be  necessary  to  bore  holes  in  the  board, 
a  trifle  smaller  than  the  screws,  and  the  holes  in  the 
pieces  should  be  countersunk.  (Countersinking  is  ream- 
ing out  the  edge  of  the  bored  hole  to  fit  the  head  of  a 
wood  screw.) 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  does  the  gauge  mark  more  easily  when  held  at  an  angle 
than  when  held  vertical  ? 

2.  Why  should  the  point  of  the  gauge  be  sharpened  like  a  knife 
point  rather  than  like  a  round  point  ? 

3.  Why  do  you  bore  holes  through  the  small  pieces  and  not  into 
the  board  ? 

4.  Why  are  the  screws  placed  on  opposite   edges  of  the  small 
pieces  instead  of  on  the  same  edge  ? 


LESSON  II 

LEVEL   SQUARE 

STOCK 

I  pc.  white  pine  J"  X  *\"  X  25"       Brads  f"         Glue 
I  pc.  white  pine  f"  X  2\"  X  13" 

TOOLS 

Rule  Marking  gauge  Plane 

Try-square          Saw  Chisel 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Laying  out. 

2.  Surfacing  one  side. 

3.  Planing  one  edge. 

4.  Squaring  one  end. 

5.  Laying  out  length  and  width  and  thickness. 

6.  Planing  to  thickness. 

7.  Sawing  to  length. 

8.  Planing  to  length. 

9.  Sawing  to  width. 
10.  Planing  to  width. 

IT.  Laying  out  halved  joint. 

12.  Sawing  halved  joint. 

13.  Trimming  halved  joint. 

14.  Gluing. 

15.  Squaring  up  corners. 

16.  Laying  out  scale  for  plumb  bob. 

10 


LEVEL   SQUARE 


II 


Requirements.  -  -  The  pieces  are  to  be  of  the  exact 
length,  width,  and  thickness  called  for  in  the  drawing. 
The  two  ends  halved  are  to  be  fitted  together  so  the 
surfaces  are  flush  with  each  other,  and  the  outside  and 
inside  corners  square. 

When  two  pieces  of  wood  of  equal  thickness  are  to 
be  fitted  together  so  that  the  surfaces  are  flush,  the 
halved  joint  is  commonly  used.  In  making  this  joint, 
one  half  of  the  thickness  is  cut 
out  of  each  of  the  pieces  for  a 
distance  equal  to  the  width  of 
the  pieces. 

There  are  two  methods  com- 
monly used ;  in  one,  the  joint  is 
laid  out  according  to  measure- 
ments, and  in  the  other,  the 
laying  out  is  done  by  super- 
imposing, which  is  laying  one 
piece  on  the  other  and  marking 
the  width  by  lining  along  the 
edges.  The  latter  method  is  not 
so  accurate,  because  when  the  FlG-  15. -WORKING  DRAWING 

.  OF  LEVEL  SQUARE. 

pieces    are   cut   along  the   lines 

marked  out,  the  cut  is  too  large,  and  the  two  parts 
make  a  poor  fit.  In  order  to  prevent  this,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  cut  inside  the  lines  with  the  saw  and  trim  with 
the  chisel.  This  makes  a  "  cut  and  try  "  method, 
which  is  not  recommended.  If  the  work  is  laid  out 
accurately,  if  all  measurements  are  exact,  and  if  the 
cuts  are  on  the  lines,  the  pieces  will  fit  together  with  the 
pressure  of  the  hands,  requiring  no  forcing,  neither 
will  they  be  so  loose  as  to  fall  apart. 


12 


WOODWORKING 


i-io.  First  Ten  Operations.  —  Lay  out  the  pieces  f  "  X 
2\"  X  25"  and  I"  X  2\"  X  13"  so  as  to  leave  enough 
stock  for  planing,  and  follow  in  order  the  directions  for 
the  first  ten  operations  given  in  Lesson  I. 

ii.  Laying  out  halved  joint.  —  In  laying  out  the  halved 
joint,  lay  off  2"  from  one  end  and  square  across  one 
surface  and  two  edges.  Then  set  the  gauge  at  f "  and 
gauge  across  the  end  and  along  both  edges  to  the  knife 
lines. 

In  gauging,  be  careful  to  keep  the  guide  against  the 
part  to  be  removed  in  one  piece  and  against  the  part 

remaining  in  the  other 
piece. 

It  is  necessary  to  take 
great  care  in  making 
any  joint,  both  in  lay- 
ing out  and  in  cutting. 
12.  Sawing  halved 
joint. —  If  the  pupil  feels 
confident  that  he  can  do 
careful  and  accurate 
work  with  the  saw,  he 
may  follow  the  direc- 
tions given  under  a.  If 
not  quite  sure,  it  will  be  wise  to  follow  the  directions 
given  under  b. 

a.  Hold  the  piece  perpendicular  in  the  vise,  as 
in  Fig.  16.  Hold  the  thumb  nail  of  the  left  hand  in 
the  groove  made  by  the  marking  gauge  and  set  the 
teeth  of  the  rip  saw  so  that  they  will  just  touch  the 
thumb  nail,  and  so  will  split  the  line. 

Saw  very  carefully  down  to  the  line  squared  across 


FIG.  16.  —  FIRST  CUT  IN  MAKING  HALVED 
JOINT. 


LEVEL   SQUARE 


FIG.  17.  —  SECOND  CUT  IN  MAKING  HALVED 
JOINT. 


the  edge.     In  this  operation  watch  the  back  of  the  piece 
as  carefully  as  the  front. 

Place  the  piece  on  the  bench  hook,  and  with  the  cross- 
cut saw  split  the  line  squared  across  the  surface,  making 
the  shoulder  down  to 
the  saw  cut  already 
made.  Be  sure  that 
the  saw  cut,  or  kerf, 
is  always  made  in  the 
material  to  be  removed. 
(Fig.  17.) 

If  these  sawing  oper- 
ations have  been  made 
carefully  and  accu- 
rately, the  two  pieces 
will  fit  together  without  any  further  trimming  and 
fitting. 

b.  This  operation  is  to  be  recommended  unless  the 
pupil  is  certain  that  he  can  do  very  accurate  work  in 
sawing.  It  is  expected  that  the  pupil,  after  a  little 
practice,  will  be  able  to  saw  all  joints  where  sawing  is 
possible. 

The  advantages  of  the  sawed  joints  are  that  glue 
holds  the  parts  together  better,  and  time  and  labor  are 
saved  in  the  extra  operations.  The  work  should  be 
held  just  the  same  as  in  12,  a,  but  instead  of  splitting 
the  lines,  the  saw  should  be  held  at  such  a  distance 
from  the  lines  that  the  teeth  just  miss  touching  it. 

13.  Trimming  halved  joint. —  Remove  with  the  chisel 
the  stock  left  between  the  kerf  and  the  line.  Hold  the 
piece  on  the  bench  hook  or  in  the  vise  and  with  an 
inch  chisel  cut  down  through  the  scored  line,  taking 


WOODWORKING 


that     they 
square.     Do 


care  not  to  cut  off  the  line.  Test  the  squareness  of  the 
line  with  the  try-square,  as  in  Fig.  18.  If  this  shoulder 
is  not  exactly  square,  it  will  be  impossible  to  fit  the 

two  arms  together  so 
will  be 
not  use 

a  narrow  chisel,  for  it 
is  more  difficult  to 
chisel  a  straight  line 
with  it  than  with  a 
wide  one. 

FIG.  18.  — TESTING  SQUARENESS  OF  SHOULDER.         After    the    shoulder 

is     chiseled      square, 

place  the  piece  in  the  vise,  and  chisel  the  inside  of  the 
tongue  down  to  the  line.  (See  Fig.  19.)  Square  up  this 
surface  to  see  that  it  is  flat  in  all  directions. 

If  the  grain  of  the  wood  is  crooked  so  that  it  will 
split    down    below   the    line   if  chiseled    in   this   way, 
then  use  the  following 
method. 

Place  the  piece  edge- 
wise against  a  waste 
piece,  and  put  both  of 
them  in  the  vise  so 
that  the  piece  will  lie 
horizontally,  and  chisel 
across  the  grain  of  the 

wood,     as     in    Fig.    2O,        FIG.  19.  — CHISELING  INSIDE  OF  TONGUE. 

down  to  the  line. 

14.  Gluing.  —  Hold  the  two  pieces  of  the  halved  joint 
in  the  vise  and  test  both  inside  and  outside  angles  with 
the  try-square.  In  gluing  this  joint,  rub  the  glue  on  to 


LEVEL   SQUARE  15 

the  surface  of  one  piece,  and  on  the  shoulders  of  both 

pieces.     In  forcing  the  pieces  together,  be  sure  to  force 

the  edges  up  against  the  two  shoulders ;    then  fasten 

securely  with  the  f "  brads,  leaving  enough  of  the  heads 

projecting   so  that   the 

brads  may  be  pulled  out 

again  after  the  glue  has 

set.     If  hot  glue  is  used, 

it  will  set  in  a  few  hours  ; 

but  if  cold  fish  glue  is 

used,  it  will  require  24 

FIG.  20. —  CHISELING  ACROSS  THE  GRAIN. 

hours  to  set. 

15.  Squaring  up  corners.  —  When  the  glue  is  set,  re- 
move the  brads  and  trim  off  the  surplus  glue  with  a 
chisel,  taking  care  not  to  cut  the  wood.  Test  the 
squareness  of  the  corners  and  the  flatness  of  the  sur- 
faces with  the  try-square. 

Take  off  a  thin  shaving  with  the  plane 
to  true  up  and  make  a  neat  appearance. 
Drive  the  brads  back  in  place  and  clinch 
them. 

1 6.    Laying  out  scale  for  plumb  bob. — 
Drive  a  brad  in  the  free  end  of  the  longer 
arm  of  the  square,  and  attach  to  this  a 
fine  silk  thread  as  long  as  the  arm ;  split 
FIG.  21.— PLUMB   a   buckshot   or   BB   shot    and    attach   to 

LINE  AND  BOB.         111  •  i 

the  thread  at  a  point  so  near  the  corner 
that  it  will  just  clear  the  bench  top  when  placed  as 
in  Fig.  21. 

In  laying  out  the  scale  for  the  plumb  bob,  select 
a  surface  that  is  perfectly  level  by  a  spirit  level,  and 
standing  the  square  on  this  make  a  mark  under  the 


16  WOODWORKING 

thread.  A  spirit  level  is  a  small  straight  piece  of  wood 
or  iron  in  one  edge  of  which  is  placed  a  glass  tube 
containing  alcohol  or  spirits,  and  this  is  used  in  deter- 
mining horizontal  surfaces.  When  a  second  tube  is 

placed  across  one  end,  it  can  be 
used  in  determining  vertical  sur- 
faces also.  If  no  level  surface 
can  be  found,  stand  it  on  a  sur- 
face that  is  slanted  sufficiently 
to  allow  the  thread  to  incline 
considerably  towards  one  side 


™E  £™BLBYO'BNG.F°"  s^T  and    mark   under   the    thread; 

then  reverse  the  position  of  the 

shorter  arm  so  the  thread  inclines  the  same  distance 
in  the  opposite  direction,  and  mark  again.  (Figs.  22 
and  23.) 

A  point  halfway  between  these  two  marks  is  the  place 
at  which  the  thread  will  be  when  the  lower  arm  is  level 
and  the  upright  arm  is  plumb.  To 
complete  the  scale  several  marks 
can  be  made  equidistant  from  the 
center  line. 

Use  of   the  chisel.  —  In    using   a 
chisel,  never  place   either  hand  in 
front  of  the  cutting  edge,  as  a  slip   FlG  23.  —LAYING  OUT 
of  the  tool    may   cause    a    serious      fALE  *f  PLUMB  BOB- 

_  .  SECOND  STEP. 

accident.  The  chisel  must  be  kept 
very  sharp  ;  the  method  of  sharpening  will  be  given 
later.  The  action  of  the  chisel  in  entering  the  wood 
is  like  that  of  a  wedge,  and  unless  the  wood  on  one 
side  gives  way  to  the  pressure,  the  fibers  on  each  side 
will  be  forced  back  and  crushed  as  in  A,  Fig.  24.  If 


LEVEL   SQUARE 


there  is  room  for  a 
shaving  to  be  pushed 
to  one  side,  as  at  B, 
then  the  fibers  back  of 
the  chisel  will  bear  the 
pressure  without  being 
crushed.  Therefore, 
when  it  is  necessary  to 
take  a  heavy  cut  and 
to  use  the  mallet,  do 
not  place  the  chisel  on 

the  line,  for  it  Will  force    FIG.  24. — ACTION  OF  CHISEL  IN  ENTERING 

the    wood    back    over  WoOD' 

the  line  and  make  the  work  inaccurate ;  leave  enough 
wood  in  front  of  the  line  so  that  a  light  paring  cut  can 

be  made,  trimming  down 
to  the  line.  In  horizontal 
paring,  the  work  should 
be  placed  in  the  vise  so 
that  the  two  hands  are 
free  to  handle  the  tool. 

Place  a  piece  of  waste 
material  back  of  the 
piece  to  be  pared,  and 
take  a  light  cut  with  the 
bevel  or  slanting  surface 
of  the  tool  up.  If  the 
waste  piece  were  not 
placed  there,  the  pressure 
of  the  chisel  would  splin- 
ter a  piece  off  the  farther 

FIG.  25.  — CHISELING  FROM  BOTH  SIDES 

TOWARD  THE  MIDDLE.  edge,  spoiling  good  work. 


18 


WOODWORKING 


FIG.  26.  — A  SHEARING  CUT  WITH  A 
CHISEL. 


Another  method  that  does  not  require   a  piece  of 
waste  material  back  of  the  chisel  is  to  cut  partly  through 

from  one  side,  then  re- 
verse the  block  and  finish 
from  the  other  side. 
(See  Fig.  25.) 

In  taking  the  finishing 
cuts,  turn  the  chisel  a 
little  to  one  side,  giving 
a  shearing  cut,  which  in- 
sures a  smooth  surface, 
and  also  requires  less 
force  in  pushing  the  tool. 
(See  Fig.  26.)  A  shear- 
ing cut  is  made  by  mov- 
ing the  chisel  to  one  side  while  pushing  it  into  the  wood. 
In  cutting  across  the  end  grain,  it  is  almost  necessary 
to  use  this  shearing  cut  unless  a  mallet  is  used.  Do 
not  attempt  a  heavy  cut  on  joint  work,  but  rather  sev- 
eral light  cuts. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  gauge  from  opposite  sides  of  the  two 
pieces  when  gauging  the  thickness  for  the  halved  joint  ? 

2.  Why  is  a  halved  joint   made  with   the  saw  better  than  one 
made  with  the  saw  and  chisel  ? 

3.  When  about  to  trim  the  halved  joint  with  a  chisel,  how  will 
you  determine  whether  the  grain  is  crooked  ? 

4.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  place  a  piece  of  waste  material  back 
of  the  piece  when  chiseling  across  the  grain  ? 

5.  Why  do  you   use  a  wide  chisel   instead  of  a  narrow  one  in 
trimming  the  shoulder  of  the  joint  ? 

6.  Why  is  the  double  angle  at  the  edge  of  the  chisel  better  than 
a  single  angle  ? 


LEVEL   SQUARE  19 

7.  Why  is  a  smaller  angle  at  the  chisel  edge  better  for  soft  wood 
than  for  hard  wood  ? 

8.  In  gluing  up  stock,  which  is  preferable,  cold,  warm,  or  hot 
glue,  and  why  ? 

9.  In  gluing  the  end  grain,  why  is  it  better  to  put  on  two  coats 
of  glue,  allowing  the  first  to  dry  before  applying  the  second  ? 

10.    Would  you  use  glue  of  the  same  consistency  in  gluing  oak 
that  you  would  in  gluing  maple  ?     Why  ? 


LESSON  III 


SAWBUCK 


4  pcs. 
2  pcs. 


red  oak 
red  oak 


STOCK 

2"  X  3!"  X  36" 


i"  X 


X  25 


12  screws  2",  No.  10, 
F.  H.  B. 


I  pc.  red  oak     i"  X  6"  X  18" 
I  pc.  round  hickory  2"  X  20" 


Try-square 
Bevel  square 
Saw 
Carpenter's  square 


TOOLS 
Chisel 

Brace  and  bit 
Screw  driver 


Drawknife 
Spokeshave 
Marking  gauge 
Rule 


OPERATIONS 

1.  Laying  out. 

2.  Surfacing  one  side. 

3.  Planing  one  edge. 

4.  Laying  out  length,  width,  thickness. 

5.  Planing  to  thickness. 

6.  Laying  out  angles  at  ends  of  legs. 

7.  Sawing  the  angles  at  the  ends  of  the  legs 

8.  Planing  to  width. 

9.  Laying  the  angles  of  the  halved  joint. 

10.  Sawing  the  halved  joint. 

11.  Chiseling  the  halved  joint. 

12.  Fastening  the  legs  together. 

13.  Laying  out  the  holes  for  the  crossbar. 


20 


SAWBUCK  21 

14.  Boring  the  holes  for  the  crossbar. 

15.  Trimming  the  ends  of  the  crossbar. 

16.  Wedging  the  ends  of  the  crossbar. 

17.  Laying  out  the  braces. 

18.  Sawing  the  braces. 

19.  Chiseling  the  braces. 

20.  Fastening  the  braces  in  place. 

Follow  the  directions  given  in  Lesson  I  for  Operations 
i  to  5  inclusive. 

6.  Laying  out  angles  at  ends  of  legs.  —  In  this 
operation  you  will  need  a  carpenter's  steel  square 


FIG.  27. —  METHOD  or  SETTING  BEVEL. 

and  a  bevel.  Lay  the  carpenter's  square  on  the 
bench,  and  place  a  straightedge  (which  is  a  straight 
stick  of  any  kind)  so  that  one  edge  touches  the  15" 
mark  on  the  longer  arm,  called  the  blade,  and  also  the 
9"  mark  on  the  shorter  arm,  called  the  tongue.  These 
dimensions,  as  you  can  see  by  the  drawing,  represent 
the  perpendicular  height  of  the  joint  from  the  ground 
and  half  the  distance  between  the  legs. 

Have  some  one  hold  the  straightedge  in  place  while 
you  set  the  bevel  square  to  this  angle,  holding  the 
beam  of  the  bevel  against  the  carpenter's  square, 
and  adjust  the  blade  to  the  straightedge ;  then  fasten 
the  blade  by  tightening  the  thumbscrew,  as  shown 

FARM    SHOP    WORK  —  3 


22 


WOODWORKING 


in  Fig.  27.  Lay  out  the  angles  on  one  leg  by  lining 
across,  as  in  Fig.  28  ;  and  placing  the  bevel  on  the  oppo- 
site edge,  lay  out  the  angle  on  the  other  end.  With 
the  try-square  line  across  the  edges  at  the  points  where 
the  bevel  cuts  the  corner. 

7.    Sawing  the    angles  at  the  ends  of    the   legs.  - 
When  the  angles  have  been  laid  out,  they  can  be  sawed, 
using  a  backsaw  and    bench    hook.     Care  should    be 


FIG.  28.  —  LAYING  OUT  ANGLES  ON  LEGS  OF  SAWBUCK. 

taken  in  following  both  lines.     The  planing  to  width 
in  Operation  8  is  the  same  as  in  former  lessons. 

9.  Laying  out  the  angles  of  the  halved  joint.  —  Meas- 
ure up  from  points  a,  a,  Fig.  29,  on  each  leg  if  to  points 
by  b9  and  mark ;  now  lay  one  leg  over  the  other  so  the 
points  by  b  touch  each  other,  and  spread  the  lower  ends 
until  the  points  a,  a  are  18"  apart ;  hold  in  this  position 
and  adjust  the  bevel  square  so  the  beam  lies  on  one  leg 
and  the  blade  along  the  other  leg.  Tighten  the  set 
screw,  and,  removing  the  leg,  line  across  at  this  point 
on  both  legs,  but  on  opposite  sides.  In  order  to  locate 
the  other  point  it  will  be  necessary  to  measure  on  a 


SAWBUCK 


a  *- 


FIG.  29.  —  WORKING  DRAWING  OF  SAWBUCK. 

line  perpendicular  to  the  first  line.  Lay  the  end  of 
the  rule  along  the  blade  of  the  bevel,  as  in  Fig.  30, 
and  move  the  bevel  down  the  leg  until  the  3"  mark 
touches  the  mark  already  lined  across.  With  the. 
bevel,  line  across  at  this  point,  and  repeat  the  opera- 
tion on  the  other  leg. 

With  the  try-square,  line  halfway  across  the  edges 
at  the  ends  of  the  lines  already  drawn,  as  in  Fig.  30. 
With  the  marking  gauge  set  at  one  half  the  thickness 
of  the  legs,  gauge  on  both  edges  of  both  legs  between 
the  lines ;  being  sure  to  hold  the  gauge  guide  against 
opposite  surfaces  of  the  two  legs  so  that  the  amount 
of  wood  to  be  removed  from  one  leg  will  exactly  equal 
the  material  that  is  left  in  the  other  leg.  Repeat 
these  operations  on  the  other  pair  of  legs. 


24  WOODWORKING 

10.  Sawing    the    halved     joints.  —  In    sawing    the 
halved  joint,   always   split  the   lines   and    saw  in  the 
material  to  be  removed. 

11.  Chiseling   the   halved    joints.  —  In    chiseling    the 
halved  joints,   follow  the  directions  given    under   Use 
of  the  chisel  in  Lesson  II. 

12.  Fastening  legs  together.  —  In  fastening  the  legs 
together,  it  would  be  useless  to  use  glue,  as  the  sawbuck 
will  be  in  the  rain  many  times,  and  the  water  would  dis- 


FIG.  30.  — LAYING  OUT  WIDTH  or  HALVED  JOINT. 

solve  and  wash  out  the  glue  in  the  joint.  Therefore,  it 
would  be  better  to  use  screws. 

It  will  not  be  necessary  to  lay  out  the  screw  holes  by 
measurement ;  locate  them  with  the  eye  as  in  the  draw- 
ing, and,  selecting  a  gimlet  bit  the  size  of  the  screws,  bore 
through  one  leg.  Place  the  screws  in  place,  and,  fitting 
the  joint  together,  drive  the  screws  into  the  other  leg 
just  far  enough  to  mark  their  location.  Selecting  a  bit 
about  one  half  the  size  of  the  screws,  bore  into,  or 
nearly  through,  the  other  leg  at  the  marks  made  by 
the  screws.  Fasten  together  by  screwing  the  screws 
into  place,  after  countersinking  the  holes. 

13.    Laying  out  the   holes   for    the    crossbar.  —  All 


SAWBUCK 


that  will  be  necessary  to  locate  the  hole  for  the  cross- 
bar is  to  draw  diagonals  from  the  four  points  of  inter- 
section and  locate  it  at  their  intersection. 

14.  Boring  the  holes  for  the  crossbar. — In  boring 
these  holes,  use  an  expansion  bit  and  set  it  at  i^"; 
bore  until  the 
spur  comes 
through,  then  re-.  . 
verse  and  finish 
from  the  oppo- 
site side.  In  this 


way  you  insure 
a  clean-cut  hole. 
15.  Trimming 
the  ends  of  the 
crossbar.  —  The 
ends  of  the  hick- 
ory crossbar 
should  be 
rounded  off  for 
a  distance  of 
about  3"  from 
each  end.  (Fig. 
32.)  If  the  bar 
is  considerably 
too  large,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  use  the  drawknife  and  spokeshave,  but 
if  only  a  little  is  to  be  removed,  the  spokeshave  only 
need  be  used.  First,  with  the  compass  set  at  f  ",  locate 
the  center  of  the  end  by  the  eye,  and  lay  out  the  circles 
\\"  in  diameter.  Trim  off  the  ends  with  the  draw- 
knife,  and  finish  with  the  spokeshave. 


FIG.  31.  —  TRIMMING  ENDS  OF  CROSSBAR. 


26 


WOODWORKING 


16.  Wedging  the  ends  of  the  crossbar.  —  Saw 
slits  in  the  end  of  the  crossbar 
to  a  depth  of  about  2j",  as  in 
Fig.  32,  and  make  two  wedges 
also  of  hickory  similar  to  that 
shown  in  Fig.  32.  Drive  the 
crossbar  into  the  hole  and  wedge. 
Repeat  for  the  other  end  and  saw 
off  the  projections  flush  with  the 
surface  of  the  legs. 

17.    Laying  out  the    braces.  - 
Lay  the  two  cross  braces  in  place 
on   the  legs    of  the    sawbuck,  as 
in  the  drawing,  and  set  the  bevel 
square  for  the  halved  joint  c,  Fig. 
29,  following  the  directions  given 
in  Operations  9,  10,  n,  12.     The 
6"    brace    on    the    underside    of 
FIG.  32.— WEDGING  ENDS    the    legs   opposite  is  fastened  on 
or  CROSSBAR.  with  screws  as  are  the  others. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  In  laying  out  the  angles  at  the  ends  of  the  legs,  why  are  the 
dimensions  9"  and  141"  used  ? 

2.  In  laying  out  the  angles  30  and  60  degrees  with  the  carpenter's 
square,  where  will  you  hold  the  beam  in  each  case  ? 

3.  In  laying  out  the  halved  joints  for  the  legs  and  the  cross 
braces,  do  you  lay  them  out  on  the  same  or  opposite  sides  of  the 
members,  and  why  ? 

4.  In  boring  the  holes  for  the  screws,  why  do  you  select  bits  of 
different  sizes  for  the  two  pieces  ? 

5.  In  boring  the  holes  for  the  crossbar,   why  do  you  use  an  ex- 
pansion bit  instead  of  an  auger  bit  ? 


LESSON   IV 

FOLDING  SAWBUCK 

STOCK 

4  pcs.  maple  or  birch  2"  x  3"  X  36"       14  screws  2",  No.  10, 
2  pcs.  maple  or  birch  2"  x  J"  X  25"  F.  H.  B. 

I  pc.  maple  or  birch  i"  X  2"  x  22" 
I  pc.  round  hickory  2"  x  22" 
i  pc.  round  hickory  2"  X  18" 

TOOLS 
Same  as  in  Lesson  III. 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Laying  out. 

2.  Surfacing  one  side. 

3.  Planing  one  edge. 

4.  Laying  out  length,  width,  thickness. 

5.  Planing  to  thickness. 

6.  Sawing  ends  square. 

7.  Planing  to  width. 

8.  Laying  out  holes  for  crossbars. 

9.  Boring  holes  for  crossbars. 

10.  Trimming  ends  of  crossbars. 

11.  Wedging  the  legs  to  the  crossbars. 

12.  Laying  out  braces. 

13.  Sawing  braces. 

14.  Chiseling  braces. 

15.  Fastening  braces. 

16.  Attaching  rope  to  cross  pieces. 

27 


28 


WOODWORKING 


Follow  the  directions  given  in  Lesson  I  for  Opera- 
tions 1-7. 


FIG.  33.  —  WORKING  DRAWING  OF  FOLDING  SAWBUCK. 

8.  In  laying  out  the  holes  for  the  crossbars,  measure 
up  from  one  end  of  each  leg  20"  for  the  upper  crossbar, 
and  for  the  lower  crossbar  measure  up  2"  from  the  lower 
end  of  each  of  the  inner  legs.     Square  across  at  these 
points  and  find  the  middle  of  each  line.     With  the  com- 
pass, describe  \\"  circles  at  these  points. 

9.  In  boring  the  holes  for  the  crossbars,  follow  the 
directions  and  remember  the  precautions  given  in  the 
preceding  lesson. 

10.  In  trimming  the   ends   of  the   lower    crossbar, 
follow  the  directions  given  in  the  previous  lesson ;    but 
in  trimming  the  ends  of  the  middle   crossbar,    draw 
a  line  around  the  bar  4"  from  each  end;    lay  out  \\" 
circles  at  each  end  with  the  compass,  and  saw  along 
the  line  to  a  depth  of  about  \"  clear  around  the  bar. 

Trim  down  to  the  circle  at  the  end  as  in  the  previous 


FOLDING   SAWBUCK 


29 


lesson  and  with  a  chisel 

trim  up  to  the  saw  kerf, 

making    a    shoulder    at 

this    point.      (See    Fig. 

35.)    In  this  lesson  more 

care  must    be  taken  in 

trimming  the  ends,  for 

they  must  be  perfectly 

cylindrical  and  smooth. 

It  will  be  necessary  to 

use    sandpaper    in 

smoothing  up  the  work.     Hold  the  piece  as  shown  in 

Fig.  34.     The  two  outer  legs  are  to  be  wedged  in  place 

as  described  in  Lesson    III.     The  two  inner  legs  are 

to  fit  snug  against  the  outer  legs  and  inside  against  the 

shoulders  cut  in  the  upper  crossbar.    They  must  be  free 

to  rotate  on  the  crossbar,  and  so  it  will  be  well  to  sand- 


FIG.  34.  —  SANDPAPERING  END  OF  CROSSBAR. 


FIG.  35.  —  TRIMMING  END  OF  CROSSBAR. 


30  WOODWORKING 

paper  that  part  of  the  ends  a  trifle  smaller  than  the 
outer  2". 

11.  In  wedging  the  legs  to  the  crossbars,  begin  with 
the  inner  pair,  place  them  on  the  upper  bar  up  against 
the  shoulders  ;  then  fit  the  lower  bar  in  place  in  the  holes 
bored  2"  from  the  lower  end.     Wedge  this  lower  bar 
in  place  as  described  in  the  preceding  lesson,  and  saw 
off  the  projecting  ends  close  to  the  legs. 

Place  the  other  pair  of  legs  on  the  upper  crossbar 
snug  up  against  the  inner  pair  of  legs,  and  wedge  in 
place. 

12,  13,  14,  15.  In  laying  out  the  braces,  in  sawing, 
chiseling,  and  fastening  to  the  legs,  follow  the  directions 
given  previously  with  the  exception  that  the  braces 
are  attached  to  the  legs  in  different  places,  as  shown  in 

Fig.  33- 

16.  Attach  a  small  rope  to  the  lower  brace  and  bar 
of  the  legs  to  keep  them  from  spreading  too  far.  If 
the  legs  are  not  parallel  and  the  braces  are  not  square, 
the  sawbuck  will  not  fold  together  or  stand  straight. 
If  the  ends  of  the  upper  crossbar  are  not  cylindrical 
and  smooth,  the  legs  will  not  fold  easily. 


LESSON  V 

PORCH   CHAIR 

STOCK 

2  pcs.  oak,  maple,  or  birch  f "  x  2"  X  50 
2  pcs.  oak,  maple,  or  birch  \"  X  2"  x  45 
2  pcs.  oak,  maple,  or  birch  f "  X  2"  x  23 
2  pcs.  oak,  maple,  or  birch  \"  X  2"  X  19 
2  pcs.  oak,  maple,  or  birch  f"  X  2"  X  12 
2  pcs.  oak,  maple,  or  birch  f"  x  2"  x  n 
I  pc.  oak,  maple,  or  birch  i"  X  6"  X  28 

1  strip  canvas     2'    X  50" 
6  carriage  bolts  J"  X  2j" 

2  carriage  bolts  \"  x  3f" 
8  washers  \" 

4  screws  i",  No.  6 
Large  tacks 


TOOLS 
Try-square               Saw 
Bevel                        Plane 
Marking  gauge 

Brace  and  bit 
Chisel 
Sandpaper 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Planing  strips  to  size  and  sawing  to  length. 

2.  Laying  out  and  boring  holes. 

3.  Laying  out  and  chamfering  ends. 

4.  Making  rounds. 

5.  Shellacking  and  sandpapering. 

6.  Assembling. 

31 


WOODWORKING 


hz-J  ^4- 


0 


T" 


<  o 


FIG.  36.  —  DETAILS  FOR  PORCH  CHAIR. 
(Two  pieces  of  each  dimension.) 

Permission  of  American  Carpenter  and  Builder. 


(Q 


O 


T' 


o 


'*    i 

o      *- 


UJ 


"•  9 


I 


i.  Planing  all  strips  to  size  and  sawing  to  length.  - 
All  strips  are  to  be  planed  square  and  smooth.     After 
squaring,  strips  A,  B,  C,  and  D  are  f "  thick  and  2" 
wide,  with  the  corners  slightly  rounded  (Fig.  36). 

Pieces  E  and  F  are  f "  thick  and  2"  wide.     Cutting 


PORCH  CHAIR  33 

off  two  or  three  shavings  from  the  corners  prevents  the 
possibility  of  slivers. 

When  planed  to  size,  saw  to  the  following  lengths  : 

A,  49i" 

B,  44*" 

C,  22" 

A  i8i" 
£,  iij" 
F,  ioi" 

2.  Laying  out  and  boring  holes.  —  On  each  of  pieces 
A  lay  out  at  one  end  a  hole  i"  in  diameter,  the  centers 
of  which  are  ij"  from  the  end.  At  the  other  end  lay 
out  a  similar  hole  I \"  from  the  end.  i8J"  from  the  first 
end  lay  out  a  \"  hole,  and  \\\"  from  the  other  end  lay 
out  a  \"  hole. 

On  each  of  pieces  B  lay  out  at  both  ends  i"  holes, 
I J"  from  the  ends.  12"  from  one  end  lay  out  a  J"  hole. 
7^"  from  the  other  end  lay  out  a  i"  hole  with  the  center 
on  one  edge.  3f "  from  this  hole  lay  out  a  similar  hole, 
and  continue  until  4  such  holes  have  been  laid  out  on 
this  edge. 

On  each  of  pieces  C  lay  out  a  i"  hole  if"  from  one 
end,  and  a  J"  hole  the  same  distance  from  the  other  end. 
7§ "  from  this  end  lay  out  a  \"  hole. 

On  each  of  pieces  D  lay  out  a  J"  hole  ij"  from  one 
end  and  5"  from  the  other  end  lay  out  a  \"  hole. 

On  pieces  £  lay  out  \"  holes  ij"  from  each  end. 

On  pieces  F  lay  out  one  hole  ij"  from  one  end,  and 
another  hole  4"  from  the  other  end.  These  should  be 
of  the  size  to  admit  No.  6  screws. 

In  boring  the  half  holes  on  pieces  B,  place  the  two 


34 


WOODWORKING 


pieces  together  edgewise  in  the  vise  and  bore  with  the 
screw  of  the  bit  in  the  crack  between  the  pieces.  To 
prevent  splitting,  all  pieces  should  be  held  in  the  vise 
when  boring  the  i"  holes. 

3.  Laying  out  and  chamfering  the  ends.  —  Lay  out 
J"  chamfers  on  both  ends  of  pieces  A,  B,  and  C,  and  on 
one  end  of  pieces  D ;    on  the  other  end  of  pieces  D  lay 
out  a  bevel  3"  from  the  end  down  to  i"  at  the  end. 

To  chamfer,  cut  off 
the  angles  made 
where  two  surfaces 
meet.  This  cut  is 
usually  made  at  an 
angle  of  45°.  On 
pieces  E  lay  out  f " 
bevels  on  the  edges 
only  of  the  two  ends. 
These  bevels  will  be 
at  a  45-degree  angle 
made  with  the  bevel. 
On  pieces  F  lay  out 
45-degree  bevels  of 
\"  on  the  edges  only 
of  the  two  ends. 

Chisel  the  J"  chamfers.     Saw,  and  chisel  or  plane  the 

bevels  larger  than  J". 

4.  Making   rounds.  —  Make   the  five   rounds   from 
the  board  whose  dimensions  are  i"  X  6"  X  28",  accord- 
ing to  the  directions  given  in  the  lesson  on  the  Combina- 
tion Ladder. 

5.  Shellacking  and   sandpapering.  —  Shellac   over    all 
pieces,  sandpaper,  and  shellac  again. 


FIG.  37. —  PORCH  CHAIR  ASSEMBLED. 


PORCH  CHAIR  35 

6.  Assembling  the  pieces.  —  (i)  Fit  and  glue  the 
rounds  into  A  and  B  (Fig.  37).  The  distance  between 
pieces  A  when  fastened  together  should  be  2'  3",  inside 
measurements.  The  distance  between  pieces  B  should 
be  2'  3",  outside  measurements,  as  this  pair  must  fit 
inside  the  first  pair.  (2)  Fasten  pieces  A,  B,  and  E 
together  with  the  carriage  bolts  3! "  long,  heads  outside. 
(3)  Fit  round  to  pieces  C  so  that  they  are  2'  3"  apart, 
inside  measurements.  (4)  Fasten  the  other  ends  of 
pieces  C  to  A  with  carriage  bolts  i\"  long.  (5)  Fasten 
pieces  D  to  pieces  C  with  carriage  bolts  2\"  long. 
(6)  Fasten  pieces  E  to  pieces  D  with  carriage  bolts  i\" 
long.  (7)  Fasten  pieces  F  to  pieces  D  with  screws. 
(8)  Fasten  the  canvas  to  the  upper  round  of  pieces  A 
and  B  with  heavy  tacks,  doubling  under  the  canvas 
while  tacking. 


LESSON  VI 

CLOTHES   RACK 
STOCK 

1  pc.  oak  if  x  ij"  X  60"         16  screws  i",  No.  6  R.  H.  Bl. 

2  pcs.  oak  i"  x  12"  x  12"        16  screws  f",  No.  6  R.  H.  Bl. 
16  pcs.  poplar  f  "  X  ij"  X  24"    32  washers  for  screws 

4  pcs.  poplar  f "  X  ii"  X  60"     8  screws  2",  No.  8  R.  H.  Bl. 
(R.  H.  Bl.  means  round  head,  blue.) 

TOOLS 

Rule  Plane  Turning  saw 

Try-square  Brace  and  bit  Cabinet  file 

Saw  Screwdriver  Sandpaper 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Laying  out  and  planing  center  post,  uprights,  and  bars. 

2.  Boring  holes  for  screws. 

3.  Laying  out  and  cutting  braces. 

4.  Shellacking. 

5.  Assembling. 

i.  Laying  out  and  planing  center  post,  uprights,  and 
bars.  --  The  center  post  should  be  of  some  hard  wood, 
as  oak,  and  should  be  planed  ij"  square  and  60"  long; 
square  up  both  ends  with  the  block  plane-.  The  four 

36 


CLOTHES   RACK 


37 


uprights  should  be  of  some  soft  wood,  preferably  poplar, 
but  basswood  will  do  (Fig.  38). 

Plane  up  to  size  and  square  the  ends.     The  bars  are  to 
be  f"  X  ij"  X  24",  of  the  same  wood  as  the  uprights, 


FIG.  38.  —  WORKING  DRAWINGS  OF  CLOTHES  RACK. 

and  planed  square.  Take  pains  to  have  all  the  bars  of 
the  same  length. 

2.  Boring  holes  for  screws.  —  Lay  out  the  holes  f " 
from  each  end  of  the  16  bars;  bore  the  holes  the  size 
of  the  screws.  Locate  the  screw  holes  on  the  center 
post  and  uprights,  by  placing  the  bars  in  position  with 
the  ends  flush  with  the  edges  of  the  center  post  and  up- 
rights, then  drive  the  screws  just  hard  enough  to  make 
a  mark  on  these  pieces. 

Repeat  these  operations  for  all  four  bars  on  one  up- 

FARM    SHOP   WORK  —  4 


38  WOODWORKING 

right  and  one  side  of  the  center  post.  Then  placing 
the  other  three  uprights  beside  the  first  one,  square 
across  them  from  each  screw  mark. 

Square  around  the  other  three  sides  of  the  center  post 
from  the  screw  marks  on  the  first  side.  Find  the  middle 
of  all  lines  thus  squared  on  the  center  post  and  uprights, 
and  bore  the  holes  a  trifle  smaller  than  the  screws.  The 
holes  in  the  uprights  should  be  nearly  through ;  those 
on  the  center  post  should  be  about  \"  deep. 

3.  Laying  out  and  cutting  braces.  -  -  The  four  braces 
can  be  cut  from  two  pieces  of  oak,  each  i"  X  12"  X  12". 
Lay  off  a  line  from  one  corner  to  the  opposite  corner, 
and  from  the  center  draw  a  circle  8"  in  diameter. 

Saw  along  the  line  from  corner  to  corner,  and  then 
saw  out  the  curves  with  a  turning  saw.  Smooth  the 
edges  down  with  a  cabinet  file  and  sandpaper.  Bore 
holes  for  the  screws  in  the  braces  and  center  post. 

4.  Shellacking.  —  Shellac     each     piece    thoroughly. 
Sandpaper  down  smooth  with  No.    i    sandpaper,  and 
cover  with  another  coat  of  shellac  made  thinner  than 
the  first  coat  by  the  addition  of  some  alcohol  in  about 
the  proportion  of  one   tablespoonful   to    a   teacup    of 
shellac.     It  is  advisable  to  fasten  the  braces  to  the  up- 
right with  screws  before  shellacking,  and  then  remove 
them    for    sandpapering.     This    avoids    covering    the 
joints  with  shellac,  which  would  prevent  the  glue  from 
holding. 

5.  Assembling.  —  Assemble  the  rack  by  first  fasten- 
ing the  braces  to  the  center  post  with  glue  and  screws  ; 
then  fasten  the  bars  to  the  center  post  with  screws  and 

•washers;    finally,  fasten  the  bars  to  the  uprights  with 
screws  and  washers. 


LESSON  VII 

CLOTHES  TREE 
STOCK 

1  pc.  oak  ^\"  X  i\"  X  5'  2" 

2  pcs.  oak  J"  x  i'3"  X  i '4" 
Glue,  stain,  filler,  varnish,  sandpaper' 

TOOLS 

Rule  Plane  Chisel 

Try-square  Turning  saw  Spokeshave 

Saw  Brace  and  bit 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Laying  out  and  planing  upright. 

2.  Cutting  mortises  and  boring  dowel  holes. 

3.  Laying  out,  planing,  and  sawing  legs. 

4.  Laying  out,  planing,  and  sawing  hooks. 

5.  Staining,  filling,  and  varnishing. 

6.  Assembling. 

1.  Laying   out  and  planing  upright. -- The  upright 
is  a  square  piece  tapering  from  i\"  at  one  end  to  \\"  at 
the  other.     Plane  2 \"  square  from  end  to  end ;  then  at 
one  end  lay  off  a  square  \\"  on  a  side,  and  plane  down 
to  this  square  from  the  other  end.     The  smaller  end  is 
beveled,  as  shown  in  Fig.  39. 

2.  Cutting  mortises  and  boring  dowel  holes.  —  Mor- 

39 


4o 


WOODWORKING 


--./i 


—b 


tises  are  holes  cut  in  wood  to  receive  the  tenons  in  a 

mortise  and  tenon  joint.     The  tenon  is  the  tongue  of 

wood  that  fits  into  the  mortise. 

Dowel  holes  are  holes  bored  in  wood  to  receive  the 

dowel  pins  in  a  doweled  joint.     The  dowel  pins   are 

round  pins  of  hardwood  made 
to  fit  the  dowel  holes,  and  cor- 
respond to  the  tenons  of  a  mor- 
tise and  tenon  joint.  The  first 
pair  of  mortises  is  cut  10"  from 
the  top.  By  the  section  draw- 
ing (Fig.  40)  you  can  see  that 
the  mortises  are  laid  off  center ; 
that  is,  one  mortise  f "  wide  is 
f "  from  one  edge  and  f "  from 
the  other  edge.  The  mortise 
on  the  opposite  side  is  laid  off 
according  to  the  same  dimen- 
sions, but  they  are  taken  from 
opposite  sides,  so  that  when  the 
tenons  are  introduced  they  will 
lap.  The  reason  for  lapping 
the  tenons  is  to  allow  longer  and 
consequently  stronger  tenons  to 

FIG.  39.— WORKING  DRAWING  OF  be  used  ;   then,  too,  in  this  case 

the  tenons  are   glued   in   place 

and  nailed  together  with  brads,  as  shown  in  the  section 

on  ab,  Fig.  40. 

The  second  pair  of  hooks  is  placed  i\\"  from  the  top. 

Cut  the  mortises  in  the  same  way  as  the  first  two,  but 

on  the  other  two  sides,  so  there  will  be  one  hook  on  each 

of  the  four  sides. 


CLOTHES  TREE 


section  on  a.ti. 
FIG.  40.  —  HOOKS  OF  CLOTHES  TREE. 


Two  dowel  holes  are  placed  in  each  of  the  four  sides 

of  the  post ;    the  lower  set  of  dowel  holes  is  placed  3" 

from  the  lower  end 

of  the  upright ;  bore 

them  with  a  f "  bit 

and  i"  deep.     The 

second  set  of  holes 

is  9"  from  the  lower 

end  and  bored  the 

same  depth. 

3.  Laying    out, 

planing,  and  sawing 

legs.  -  -  The  dotted 

lines  of  Fig.  41  show 

how  two  legs   may 

be  laid  out  on  one  piece  15"  x  16"  with  the  least  waste 

of  lumber.     The  curves  are  not  arcs  of  circles  and  so 

must  be  laid  out  free  hand,  after  locating  the  points 

as  indicated  in  Fig.  41. 

In  sawing  the  legs,  use  the  turn- 
ing saw  or  keyhole  saw,  and  finish 
with  the  spokeshave  and  sandpaper. 
4.  Laying  out,  planing,  and  saw- 
ing hooks.  --The  hooks  can  be  cut 
from  the  two  corners  left  on  each 
board  after  laying  out  the  legs. 
Be  careful  that  the  grain  of  the 

PIG.  41.— METHOD  OF  CUT-  6 

TING  OUT  LEGS  OF  CLOTHES  wood  runs  lengthwise  of  the  hooks. 

Fig.  40  shows  how  the  hooks  are  to 

be  laid  out.     Two  hooks  are  to  be  just  like  those  in  the 

drawing,  and  the  other  two  are  to  be  the  same,  except 

that  the  tenons  will  be  on  opposite  surfaces.     Be  careful 


L 


WOODWORKING 


not  to  make  a  mistake  in  this,  or  the  work  will  be 
spoiled.  Cut  the  tenons  before  the  rest  of  the  outline, 
and  chamfer  the  ends  after  tapering  from  f  "  to  f " . 

5.  Staining,  filling,  and  varnishing.  —  It  will  be  easier 
to  do  good  work  in  finishing  this  piece,  if  it  can  be  done 
before  assembling ;  but  if  any  of  the 
finishing  materials  get  into  the  mortises 
or  dowel  holes,  or  on  the  wood  where 
the  shoulders  are  to  be  glued,  the  glue 
will  not  stick.  The  pupil  may  do  as 
he  pleases  about  finishing  before  or 
after  assembling.  If  done  before,  then 
fit  all  parts  together  and  stain ;  then 
take  the  pieces  apart,  and  wipe  off  all 
the  stain  that  can  be  removed  with  a 
cloth. 

Assemble  the  parts  again  and  fill.— 
Filling  consists  of  rubbing  into  the 
pores  of  the  wood  a  pasty  substance 
called  wood  filler,  to  make  a  level 
smooth  surface  which  may  be  polished. 
Take  apart  and  wipe  off  all  surplus 
filler.  Allow  to  dry  for  twenty-four 
hours,  and  sandpaper  with  No.  i  sand- 
paper until  smooth ;  be  careful  not  to 
remove  any  stain  in  this  operation.  If  you  should 
sandpaper  off  some  of  the  stain,  go  over  the  spots 
again  with  a  rag  moistened  with  the  stain.  Assemble 
the  tree  and  cover  with  a  coat  of  shellac;  when  this 
dries,  which  will  be  in  about  twelve  hours,  sandpaper 
smooth  with  No.  i  sandpaper  moistened  with  oil  to 
prevent  gumming  and  sticking.  Steel  wool  can  be  used 


FIG.  42.  —  CLOTHES 
TREE  ASSEMBLED. 


CLOTHES  TREE  43 

in  this  work  to  advantage,  as  it  does  not  gum  up  or 
scratch.  The  final  coat  of  shellac  or  varnish  should 
be  given  after  the  clothes  tree  is  assembled  and  glued. 
6.  Assembling.  —  In  assembling  the  various  parts 
and  gluing  them  in  place,  it  will  be  necessary  to  glue 
them  on  in  pairs,  using  blocks  of  wood  shaped  so  that 
you  can  get  the  pressure  where  you  want  it  when  clamp- 
ing. The  pressure  must  come  along  the  line  ab,  Fig. 
39,  in  the  hooks  so  as  to  force  the  tenons  in  the  mor- 
tises square,  and  the  shoulders  flush  with  the  upright. 
The  pressure  on  the  legs  must  be  such  that  the  dowels 
will  be  forced  in  place  with  equal  pressure,  and  the  edges 
flush  with  the  surface  of  the  upright.  Here  is  a  chance 
for  the  pupil  to  exercise  some  ingenuity  in  cutting  out 
the  blocks. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  are  the  hooks  set  in  pairs  at  different  heights  on  the  up- 
right ? 

2.  Why  are  the  tenons  lapped  ? 

3.  Why  are  not  the  legs  tenoned  ? 

4.  Why  is  the  upright  tapered  ? 

5.  Why  is  it  better  to  square  up  the  upright  before  tapering  it  ? 

6.  Why  are  the  hooks  tapered  ? 


LESSON   VIII 


SEED-TESTING   BOX 

A  seed-testing  box  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  testing 
seed  corn  before  planting.  The  bottom  of  the  box  is 
covered  about  2"  deep  with  wet  sand.  Over  this  is  laid 

a  white  cloth,  also  wet,  on 

which 

with 


have  been  drawn 
a  soft  lead  pencil, 
lines  three  inches  apart, 
crossing  each  other  at 
right  angles.  Each  square 
is  numbered,  and  six  ker- 
nels of  corn  are  taken  from 
an  ear  and  placed  in  a 
square,  there  being  as 
many  ears  tested  at  once 
as  there  are  squares  on 
the  cloth.  The  ear  from 
which  the  kernels  have 
been  placed  on  square 

No.  I  is  hung  on  a  nail  driven  into  a  board  or  rack, 
and  numbered  i,  so  that  at  any  time  the  kernels  can 
be  identified  with  the  ears  from  which  they  were 
taken. 

Over  the  kernels  is  placed  another  wet  cloth,  and  the 
seeds  are  allowed  to  germinate. 

44 


FIG.  43.  — WORKING  DRAWING  OF  SEED- 
TESTING  Box. 


SEED-TESTING   BOX  45 

STOCK 

4  pcs.  white  pine  i"  x  3i"  X  25"      Screws  2",  No.  8  F.  H.  B. 
4  pcs.  white  pine  i"  x  6J"  X  25" 

TOOLS 

Rule  Saw  Brace,  bit,  and  countersink 

Try-square  Plane  Screwdriver 

Marking  gauge        Chisel          Hammer 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Laying  out. 

2.  Surfacing  one  side. 
f      3.  Planing  one  edge. 

4.  Squaring  one  end. 

5.  Laying  out  length,  width,  thickness. 

6.  Planing  to  thickness. 

7.  Sawing  to  length. 

8.  Planing  to  length. 

9.  Sawing  to  width. 

10.  Planing  to  width. 

11.  Laying  out  halved  joint. 

12.  Cutting  halved  joint. 

13.  Laying  out  screw  holes. 

14.  Boring  screw  holes. 

15.  Assembling. 

16.  Trimming. 

i-io.  Operations  i-io  are  similar  to  those  given  in 
Lesson  I. 

ii.  Laying  out  the  halved  joints.  —  In  laying  out 
the  halved  joints  at  the  corners,  set  the  marking  gauge 
at  I"  and  gauge  both  ends  of  the  four  pieces,  gauging  from 
the  two  edges  as  at  #,  b,  c,  d  (Fig.  44),  then  gauge  across 
the  ends  as  at  ^,/,  g,  being  careful  that  both  ends  of  each 


46 


WOODWORKING 


piece  are  gauged  alike  and  that  the  pieces  are  gauged  in 
pairs.  Gauge  across  the  ends  as  well  as  on  both  sur- 
faces. The  material  to  be  removed  is  marked  x. 

12.  Cutting  halved  joint.  —  In  cutting  the  halved 
joint  it  is  best  to  saw  down  the  gauge  lines,  bearing  in 
mind  the  rule  that  the  saw  kerf  must  be  in  the  material 


FIG.  44.— HALVED  JOINTS  or  SEED-TESTING  Box. 

to  be  removed,  which  means  in  this  case  to  saw  along  a, 
but  on  the  x  side  of  the  line. 

Also  saw  along  b,  but  on  the  x  side ;  then  along  c,  d,f, 
g,  on  the  x  side  of  these  lines.  In  cutting  out  the 
block  x,  it  will  be  necessary  to  bore  two  holes,  after 
sawing  <s  and  b,  through  the  block  so  that  the  bit  just 
touches  the  line  e,  and  then  chisel  along  the  line  e  from 
both  sides  towards  the  center.  (See  Fig.  45.) 

If  the  joints  have  been  carefully  cut,  the  tongues,  or 
tenons,  will  fit  tight  into  the  mortises.  If  they  do  not 
fit,  use  the  chisel  in  trimming  down  whichever  piece  is 
too  large. 


SEED-TESTING  BOX 


47 


13.  In    laying    out    the 
screw   holes,   locate  them 
by  diagonals  drawn  from 
the  four  corners  of  the  pro- 
jecting tongues. 

Lay  out  the  holes  for 
the  bottom  boards  about 
6"  apart,  but  be  sure  that 
each  board  has  at  least 
two  holes  in  each  end. 

14.  Bore  the  screw  holes 
with  a  gimlet  bit  just  the 
size  of  the  screws ;    it  will 

be  unnecessary  to  bore  into  the  second  piece,  as  the 
screws  will  hold  better  if  forced  into  the  soft  wood  with- 
out previous  boring. 


FIG.  45. —  METHOD  OF  CUTTING 
MORTISE. 


FIG.  46.  —  SEED-TESTING  Box  ASSEMBLED. 

15.  In  assembling,  fit  the  four  corners  together  tight, 
start  the  screws  with  the  hammer,  and  finish  with  the 
screwdriver. 

If  the  shoulders  of  the  joints  have  been  cut  square 


48  WOODWORKING 

with  the  surfaces,  the  corners  will  be  square  when  as- 
sembled. 

After  the  corners  have  been  fastened,  lay  on  the  bot- 
tom board  with  ends  and  edge  flush  with  the  sides  of  the 
box,  and  fasten  with  screws ;  continue  this  operation 
until  the  bottom  is  covered. 

16.  Trimming.  —  It  will  be  necessary  to  do  a  little 
trimming  with  the  plane  after  the  box  is  assembled,  to 
remove  any  projecting  edges  or  tenons.  Be  careful  in 
trimming  the  ends  of  the  tenons,  always  to  plane  towards 
the  box  and  never  away  from  it,  or  you  will  splinter  it. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  should  the  seed  be  tested  before  planting  ? 

2.  Why  do  you  select  kernels  from  different  parts  of  the  ear? 

3.  Why  should  the  sand  and  cloths  be  wet  ? 

4.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  cut  the  shoulders  of  the  joints  square  ? 

5.  How  does  the  method  of  fastening  this  joint  make  it  one  of 
the  strongest  ? 

6.  Why  is  it  easier  to  cut  the  mortise  after  boring  than  without 
boring  ? 

7.  Why  is  it  unnecessary  to  bore  holes  in  both  pieces  of  wood  in 
assembling  these  joints  ? 


LESSON   IX 

SHEEP-FEEDING  TROUGH 

STOCK 

13  board  feet  white  pine  I"  thick,  S2s 
\  Ib.  8d  nails 

2  bolts  2j"  x  f "  and  washers 

(s2s  means  "surface  two  sides/'  or  planed  on  the  two  sur- 
faces.) 

TOOLS 

Carpenter's  square         Saw  Hammer 

Try-square  Plane  Chisel 

Gauge  Brace  and  bit 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Laying  off  width  and  length  of  bottom,  sides,  and  ends. 

2.  Sawing  and  planing. 

3.  Nailing  in  place. 

4.  Laying  off  width  and  length  of  supports. 

5.  Laying  out  mortises. 

6.  Laying  out  bases. 

7.  Sawing  and  planing  to  size. 

8.  Cutting  mortises. 

9.  Nailing  bases  to  uprights. 

10.  Laying  off  width  and  length  of  brace, 
n.  Laying  out  tenons. 

12.  Cutting  tenons. 

13.  Laying  off  wedges  to  size. 

49 


WOODWORKING 


14.  Cutting  to  size. 

15.  Trimming  holes  for  wedges. 

16.  Assembling. 


na 

FIG.  47.  — WORKING  DRAWING  OF  SHEEP- 
FEEDING  TROUGH. 


1.  Laying   off    width 
and   length.  —  Lay    off 
the   width    of   the   bot- 
tom   nj"    and    length 
3'    9!".      Lay    off    the 
sides    6"    wide    and    3' 
n"  long.     Lay  out  the 
ends   8"  wide   and    13" 
long;  2"  from  one  edge 
of    the    ends,    gauge    a 
line   from    end   to    end ; 
find  the   middle  of  the 
length  and  on  the  same 
edge  lay  off  the  middle 
line;    ij"  on   each   side 
mark    a,    a,    and    draw 
lines    to    b,    b    on    the 
ends  (Fig.  47). 

2.  Sawing    and     plan- 
ing. —  Saw  out  the  mem- 
bers  just  outside  the 
lines,  leaving  enough  ma- 
terial to  plane  the  edges 
smooth   and    straight, 
and  yet  leave  them  full 
size. 

3.  Nailing  in  place.  — 
Nail    the    two   ends    to 


SHEEP-FEEDING  TROUGH  51 

the  bottom  first,  then  nail  the  sides  to  the  bottom 
and  ends. 

4.  Laying  off  supports.  —  Lay  off  the   supports,    3" 
wide  and  24"  long. 

5.  Laying  out  mortises.  —  Lay   out  the   mortises  in 
the    supports    as    follows :   7"    from    the   lower    ends 
square  a  line  across ;   2f "  from   this   line  square  an- 
other   line    across ;    but    instead     of    measuring    the 
i\"  from  the  first  line,   a   better  way    is   to  measure 
up  from  the  lower  end  9^"   and  square  across.     The 
reason  for  preferring  this  method  in  measuring  is  that 
the  liability  of  mistakes  is  reduced   because  mistakes 
are  seldom  repeated. 

Find  the  middle  of  the  supports  by  measuring  \\" 
from  each  edge.  As  the  brace  is  f "  thick,  you  should 
make  the  mortise  the  same  thickness  ;  in  laying  it  out, 
measure  one  half  of  this  thickness  on  each  side  of  the 
middle  line ;  therefore  measure  -%•§"  on  each  side  of 
the  middle  line  and  with  the  marking  gauge  scribe  each 
side  of  the  mortise.  (To  scribe  means  to  mark  with  a 
knife  or  other  sharp  instrument.) 

In  gauging  the  first  line,  set  it  at  I  ^g",  but  in  gauging 
the  second  line,  do  not  gauge  the  same  distance  from  the 
other  edge.  This  would  be  all  right  if  the  supports  were 
exactly  the  right  width,  but  so  seldom  are  all  dimen- 
sions exact,  that  a  better  way  is  to  gauge  both  sides  of 
the  mortise  from  one  edge  of  the  support ;  so  for  the 
second  line,  set  the  gauge  at  I -{-£ "  and  gauge  from  the 
same  edge  as  before.  Lay  out  the  mortise  on  both  sur- 
faces. 

6.  Laying  out  bases.  —  Lay  out  the  bases  of  the  sup- 
ports 6"  in  width ;  rip  along  this  line  and  plane.     Square 


52  WOODWORKING 

one  end  and  lay  off  15"  for  the  length,  square  across  and 
lay  off  the  length  of  the  second  base.  Gauge  a  line  2" 
from  one  edge ;  find  the  middle  of  the  length  of  each 
base  and  from  this  middle  line  measure  off  if"  on  each 
side,  and  line  to  the  2"  mark  on  the  ends,  just  as  in  lay- 
ing off  the  ends  of  the  box. 

7.  Saw  and  plane  the  members  to  line. 

8.  Cut  the  mortise  by  boring  f"  holes  inside  the  lines  ; 
chisel  from  both  sides,  commencing  with  the  ends,  then 
trim  down  the  sides.     Be  sure  the  edges  of  the  mortise 
are  square  with  the  surfaces,  and  chisel  from  both  sides 
towards  the  center.     In  testing  the  sides,  or  cheeks, 
of  a  mortise,  use  the  try-square  if  it  is  possible  to  get 
the  blade  in  the  mortise ;   if  not,  lay  the  blade  of  a  nar- 
row chisel  against  the  cheek  of  the  mortise  and  test 
with  a  try-square. 

9.  Nail  the  bases  to  the  uprights  by  starting  the  nails 
in  the  bases  and  locate  them  where  they  belong  on  the 
uprights ;  -then  drive  one  nail  through,  with  the  try- 
square  or  carpenter's  square  against  the  edge  of  the  up- 
right ;    square  the  bottom  of  the  base  with  this   and 
drive  a  second  nail  through,  then  the  others,  and  clinch 
on  the  inside.     This  insures  the  bases  being  square 
with   the    supports.      Be    sure    to    stagger    the    nails. 

10.  Lay  off  the  brace  4"  in  width  and  55!"  in  length, 
saw,  and  plane. 

11.  Lay  off  the  tenons  by  measuring  in  from  each  end 
2f "  and  square  around  on  all  four  sides ;   then  find  the 
middle  of  the  width,  and  from  this  line  measure  on  each 
side  ij"  and  gauge  from  the  ends  to  the  2f"  line.     In 
this  case  set  the  gauge  at  J  "  for  the  first  line  and  at  ^\" 
for  the  second  line.     Lay  out  the  holes  in  the  tenons 


SHEEP-FEEDING  TROUGH 


53 


before  cutting  the  tenons.     The   line   squared    across 

2\"  from  the  end  is  called  the  shoulder;    f"  from  this 

shoulder,  square  a  line  across,  and  another,  ij"  from  the 

shoulder.      Measure 

f"  on   each   side  of 

the  middle  line,  and 

gauge  lines  between 

the   two   cross    lines 

just  drawn,  as  in  Fig. 

48.    Lay  out  on  both 

surfaces. 

12.   Cuttin g  the 

tenons.  —  First,  bore 

three  J"  holes  inside 

the  lines  marking  the  } 

holes,  and  chisel  out 

from  both  sides.  The         FlG  ^ 

hole  is  cut  first,  as  the  piece  will  not  be  so  likely  to  split 

as  it  would  be  if  the  tenons  were  cut  first.     Second, 

saw  from  the  edges  along  the  shoulder  from  a  to  b, 
then  rip  from  c  to  b ;  smooth 
up  the  edges  with  the  chisel ; 
gauge  \"  from  the  edges  of  the 
ends,  and  chamfer  with  the 
plane  (Fig.  49). 

13.  The    wedges    are  laid  off 


FIG.  49. —  CUTTING  THE 
TENON. 


2|"  long  and  f "  thick  and  taper- 


ing from  \\"  to  £".     Both  ends 
are  chamfered  on  three  sides,  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 

14.  Saw  and  plane  on  four  sides. 

15.  Trimming  holes  for  wedges.  —  Fit  the  tenon  of  the 
brace  into  the  mortise  of  the  upright  support  and  drive 

FARM    SHOP    WORK 5 


54 


WOODWORKING 


the  wedge  into  place  in  the  hole.     The  taper  of  the 
wedge  will  not  allow  it  to  fit  into  the  hole  because  the 


FIG.  50. —  METHOD  or  TRIMMING  HOLE  FOR  WEDGE. 

sides  of  the  hole  are  square  and  one  edge  of  the  wedge 
tapers.  The  wedge  binds  on  the  side  next  the  larger 
end  of  the  wedge  and  there 
is  a  crack  on  the  side  oppo- 
site. With  a  pair  of  divid- 
ers, measure  the  width  of 
the  crack  a,  Fig.  50,  then 
measure  the  same  distanced ; 
chisel  down  from  this  line  in- 
side, making  a  taper  inside 
that  will  fit  the  taper  of  the 
wedge.  If  the  hole  is  not 
slanted  this  way,  the  wedge 
will  not  fit  tight  and  will  not  hold  the  supports  firmly 
against  the  shoulder  of  the  brace. 


FIG.  51.  —  SHEEP  FEED  Box 
ASSEMBLED. 


SHEEP-FEEDING  TROUGH  55 

16.  Assembling.  —  Locate  the  holes  for  the  bolts  by 
measuring  down  from  the  top  of  the  supports  3"  along 
the  middle  line ;  bore  a  f "  hole. 

Also  i"  down  from  the  top  of  the  ends  of  the  box  along 
the  center  line,  bore  a  f "  hole.  Connect  the  supports 
by  the  brace  which  is  mortised  in  and  held  in  place  with 
the  wedges.  Place  the  bolts  in  place,  supporting  the 
box,  and  screw  on  nut.  Carriage  bolts  are  used  here 
because  they  have  a  square  shank  near  the  head,  which, 
when  driven  into  the  wood,  holds  the  bolt  while  the  nut 
is  being  screwed  on. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  the  bottom  fitted  inside  the  sides  and  ends  ? 

2.  Why  is  the  cross  piece  mortised  into  the  uprights  ? 

3.  What  advantage  has  a  swinging  trough  over  a  fixed  one? 

4.  How  do  you  lay  out  a  mortise  for  a  wedge  ? 


LESSON  X 


CHICKEN   FEED   BOX 

STOCK 

White  pine  22  board  feet,  f  "  thick,  S2s. 

I  Ib.  8d  nails. 

I  pair  hinges  2"  butts. 


Carpenter's  square 
Bevel 

Saw 


TOOLS 
Plane 
Hammer 
Gauge 


Screwdriver 

Chisel 

Try-square 


OPERATIONS 

1.  Laying  out  two  ends,  three  partitions,  back,  bottom,  top, 

front,  trough. 

2.  Making  cleats. 

3.  Sawing  and  planing  members. 

4.  Assembling. 

i.  The  laying  out  of  this  exercise  is  the  most  impor- 
tant and  difficult  part  of  the  operations.     Care  must 

be  taken  to  use 
no  more  lumber 
than  is  neces- 
sary. 

For  the  two 
ends  you  need 

FIG.  52.  — ENDS  OF  CHICKEN  FEED  Box.  a     board      lOj" 

56 


3'- 1 


CHICKEN  FEED   BOX  57 

wide  and  3'  i"  long.  Beginning  at  a,  Fig.  52,  see  if  the 
end  is  square  with  the  edges  ;  if  not,  square  it  up.  From 
a  measure  3!"  along  one  edge;  square  across  about  one 
half  the  width  of  the  board  ;  measure  on  this  line  4^"  to 
b.  From  a  measure  along  the  edge  15"  to  <:,  scribe  a 
line  from  b  to  c.  From  c  measure  7"  to  d  and  square 
across  the  board  to  e.  Scribe  a  line  from  c  to  e.  From 
e  measure  15"  to/  and  square  across  the  board.  Meas- 
ure back  from  /  3^"  to  g  and  scribe  a  line  about  half- 
way across  the  board.  From  g  measure  on  this  line  4^" 
to  h  and  scribe  a  line  from  h  to  e. 

For  the  three  partitions  you  need  a  board  4'  8"  long 
and  loj"  wide.  Square  up  the  end  at  -k,  Fig.  53,  and 
measure  on  this  line 

5"  to  /.     Along  the     p~  ~~/?^  Z\T  "If 

edge    measure    14"      'b 
to  m.     Scribe  a  line 
from /tow.    Square 

across  the  board  to      FIG  53<_PARTITIONS  OF  CHICKEN  FEED  Box 
n    and    from    this 

point  measure  7"  to  o.  Scribe  a  line  from  m  to  o. 
Measure  from  o  14"  to  r  and  square  across  to  q.  On 
this  line  measure  off  5"  r  to  p  and  scribe  a  line  from  o 
to  £.  In  the  same  way  lay  out  the  third  partition  from 
the  remainder  of  the  board. 

You  need  for  the  back  enough  boards  24"  long  to 
make  a  width  of  22^".  Square  across  one  end  of  each 
board  and  accurately  measure  from  these  ends  24" 
and  square  across  these  ends.  One  edge  of  the  top 
board  is  to  be  beveled.  Scribe  a  line  \"  down  from  the 
edge  on  one  side  with  the  marking  gauge  and  then  bevel. 

You  need  for  the  bottom  enough  boards  24"  long  to 


58  WOODWORKING 

make  a  width  of  12".  Lay  out  by  the  same  method 
that  was  used  for  the  back,  but  do  not  bevel. 

For  the  top  you  need  enough  boards  24"  long  to  make 
a  width  of  i^¥' '•  Lay  out  in  the  same  way  as  the  back 
and  bottom  are  laid  out,  except  that  two  bevels  are  to 
be  laid  out,  each  of  J",  on  opposite  surfaces  of  the  top. 

For  the  front  you  need  enough  boards  24"  long  to 


FIG.  54.  —  WORKING  DRAWING  OF  CHICKEN  FEED  Box. 

make  a  width  of  15".  Lay  out  in  the  same  way,  ex- 
cept that  there  are  two  notches  cut  on  the  lower  edge, 
each  2"  deep  and  f  "  wide.  The  top  edge  is  also  beveled 
J"  down  from  the  edge. 

The  front  of  the  trough  consists  of  a  board  24"  long 
and  3f  "  wide.  Square  up  one  end,  measure  24",  and 
square  up  the  other  end. 

2.  Making  cleats. — The  top  is  held  together  by  two 
cleats  2"  wide  and  9"  long.  The  thickness  is  the  same 


CHICKEN  FEED  BOX 


59 


as  the  rest  of  the  lumber.  Gauge  down  \"  on  the  sur- 
face and  edges,  and  plane  down  to  these  lines  for  the 
bevel,  planing  the  edges  first  and  the  ends  afterwards. 
3.  Saw  outside  all  lines  and  leave  the  planing  of  out- 
side edges  until  the  box  is  assembled.  Plane  the  edges 
square  except  where  bevels  are  required. 


FIG.  55. —  CHICKEN  FEED  Box  ASSEMBLED. 

4.  Assembling.  —  First,  locate  the  three  partitions 
by  measuring  on  the  back  and  squaring  lines  across  at 
each  point  on  both  surfaces  of  the  back.  The  inside  line 
serves  to  locate  the  partitions  and  the  outside  line  serves 


60  WOODWORKING 

to  locate  the  nails  which  are  to  be  driven  in  from  the 
back  into  the  partitions.  Second,  nail  on  the  two  ends  in 
the  same  way.  Third,  nail  the  bottom  to  the  two  ends. 
Fourth,  square  lines  across  the  front  similar  to  the  lines 
on  the  back  and  for  the  same  purpose,  and  nail  the 
front  in  place  in  the  same  way.  Fifth,  nail  on  the  front 
strip  of  the  trough,  nailing  it  to  the  two  ends  and  from 
the  bottom  into  the  front  strip.  Sixth,  the  boards  of 
the  top  are  held  together  by  two  cleats  nailed  on  the 
underside  2"  from  each  end,  the  cleats  being  9"  long 
and  one  end  placed  2"  from  the  back  edge  of  the  top. 
These  nails  will  go  through  the  top  and  can  be  clinched. 
Seventh,  using  screws,  fasten  the  top  on  the  back  with 
two  hinges  placed  2"  from  the  ends.  Be  sure  to  place 
the  middle  of  the  hinges  on  the  crack  between  the  top 
and  back.  Trim  all  projecting  edges  with  the  plane. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  the  top  made  to  slant  down  ? 

2.  Why  is  the  front  made  slanting  instead  of  perpendicular  ? 

3.  Why  does  the  top  project  over  the  trough  ? 

4.  Why  does  the  front  project  into  the,  trough  ? 


LESSON  XI 

TRAP  NEST 

STOCK 

12  board  feet  white  pine  I"  by  8"  wide,  S2s. 

I  pair  brass  hinges  2"  X  i" 

\  Ib.  8d  nails 

\  Ib.  6d  nails 

3  sq.  ft.  chicken  wire 

Brads 

TOOLS 

Carpenter's  square  Rule  Hammer  Chisel 

Try-square  Saw  Plane 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Laying  out  and  cutting  bottom,  sides,  and  end. 

2.  Laying  out  and  cutting  partition  and  nail  in  place. 

3.  Laying  out  and  cutting  cross  piece. 

4.  Laying  out  and  cutting  blocks. 

5.  Laying  out  and  cutting  door,  attaching  strips. 

6.  Laying  out  and  cutting  brace. 

7.  Laying  out  and  cutting  strip. 

8.  Laying  out  and  making  frame  for  top. 

9.  Assembling. 

i.  Lay  out  the  bottom  24"  long  by  \$\"  wide,  the  two 
sides  24"  long  by  nf"  wide,  and  the  end  15!"  long  by 
lof "  wide.  These  four  pieces  are  sawed  square  on  the 

61 


62 


TRAP  NEST 


ends,  and  planed  square  on  the  edges,  but  the  surfaces 
are  left  as  they  come  from  the  mill. 

2.  Lay  out  the  partition  d  i$\"  long  by  4!"  wide. 
Fit  this  piece  across  the  bottom  n"  from  the  back, 
and  nail  in  place  on  the  bottom  before  the  nest  is  assem- 


Nco 


m 


e 


FIG.  57.  —  FRONT  OF  TRAP  NEST. 


3.  Lay  out  the 
crosspiece  e  15^" 
long  and  2"  wide. 
Bevel    the    upper 
edge  at  an   angle 
of  45  degrees.     In 
laying     out     this 
bevel,    either    set 
the    bevel    at    45 
degrees  and  mark 
the  two  ends,  and 
then  from  the  ends 
of    these    lines 

scribe  a  line  across  one  surface;  or  measure  down 
from  one  edge  a  distance  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the 
piece  and  scribe  across  the  surface. 

4.  Lay  out  the  block  /  2\"  x  f  "  X  3",  and  the  block 
g  \"  X  I"  X  3".     Nail  block  g  to  the  bottom  of  block/. 

5.  Lay  out  the  door  20"  long  by  14!"  wide.     Across 
one  end  of  the  door,  nail  a  strip  a  f"  X  i"  X  14!", 
flush  with  the  edge,  and  underneath,  in  the  middle  of 
the  width,  nail  another  strip  h  \"  x  f"  X  3".     Place 
this  4"  back  from  the  edge. 

6.  Lay  out  the  brace  c  \"  x  f "  X  9^"  and  bevel  the 
ends  so  that  they  will  fit  in  the  corners  made  by  the 
blocks  h  and  g.     This  brace,  the  block  g,  and  the  strip 


WOODWORKING 


h  just  laid  out  are  the  same  thickness  and  width,  and  so 

can  be  laid  out  in  one  piece  and  afterwards  cut  to  the 

L—  jVk      lengths  ^quired. 


7.  Lay    out    the 
strip    i    I"  X    i"  X 
I5l//    l°ng-       Saw 
out     and     fit     be- 
tween    the      sides 
flush  with  the  top 
edges  and  the  front 
edges. 

8.  Lay    out    the 
frame  of  the  top, 
wrhich   is    not    fas- 


FIG.  58.  — TOP  OF  TRAP  NEST. 

tened  to  the  nest,  but  simply  rests  on  top  so  it  can  be 
removed  when  releasing  the  hen  and  removing  the  eggs. 

The  frame  is  24"  long  and  17"  wide,  outside  measure- 
ments ;  the  pieces  are  f  "  thick  and  2"  wide,  and  are 
joined  at  the  cor- 
ners by  halved 
joints  glued  and 
nailed  with 
brads.  Nail  on 
two  strips,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  58. 

9.  A  s  s  e  m  - 
bling.  First, 

.,    ,  •  i  FIG.  50.  —  TRAP  NEST  ASSEMBLED. 

nail  the  two  sides 

on  the  bottom  with  8d  nails.  Second,  nail  the  end  in  be- 
tween the  sides.  Third,  nail  the  strip  i  in  front,  between 
the  sides,  flush  with  the  upper  edges  and  front  edges. 
Fourth,  nail  the  strip  e  in  place  between  the  sides  and  to 


TRAP  NEST  65 

the  bottom  flush  with  the  front  edges,  and  with  the  bevel 
sloping  down  and  in.  Fifth,  fasten  the  door  to  the  strip 
e  with  brass  hinges  placed  2"  from  each  end  of  the  strip. 
The  hinges  can  be  screwed  to  the  surface  of  the  wood 
without  letting  in.  (Letting  in  means  to  chisel  a  groove 
or  recess  to  receive  the  hinges.)  The  top  frame  can  be 
held  in  place  by  the  two  strips  which  are  \"  X  f  "  and 
as  long  as  the  width  of  the  nest,  inside  measurements. 
Nail  block/  i"  back  from  the  front  edge  so  that  when 
the  door  drops  down  it  will  not  hit  the  block  g. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  should  one  wish  to  use  a  trap  nest  ? 

2.  If  the  end  b  of  the  door  were  heavier  than  the  end  a,  how  would 
you  remedy  it  ? 

3.  Why  is  the  edge  e  beveled  ? 

4.  Of  what  use  is  the  strip  a  ? 

5.  Why  is  the  wire  netting  on  the  top  better  than  a  board  ? 


LESSON  XII 

WAGON  JACK 

STOCK 

I  pc.  hardwood,  oak,  hickory,  or  maple  5"  X  2"  X    3' 

I  pc.  hardwood,  oak,  hickory,  or  maple  2"  X  i"  X    3' 

I  pc.  hardwood,  oak,  hickory,  or  maple  i"  X  2"  X  12" 

I  hinge,  i  bolt,  two  iron  straps 


TOOLS 

Rule 
Try-square 
Bevel 

Saw 
Chisel 
Brace  and  bit 
Marking  gauge 

Screwdriver 
Spokeshave 
Plane 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Laying  out,  squaring,  and  planing  pieces. 

2.  Making  iron  straps. 

3.  Assembling. 

i.  Laying  out,  squaring,  and  planing.  —  Plane  A, 
Fig.  60,  5"  wide,  2"  thick,  and  3'  long.  Set  the  gauge 
at  3"  and  gauge  on  both  surfaces  from  one  edge.  6" 
from  one  end,  square  a  line  across  the  gauged  line. 
4!"  from  this  line,  square  another  line.  Repeat  this 
operation  until  5  lines  have  been  drawn.  These 
lines  locate  points  a,  b,  c,  d,  and  e.  i|"  from  the  first 
line  a,  square  another  line,  and  at  the  same  distance 

66 


67 


68  WOODWORKING 

from  lines  b,  c,  and  d,  square  lines  across ;  these  lines 
locate  points  /,  g,  h,  and  i.  Connect  these  points  with 
a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  and  you  will  have  the  steps  laid  off.  In 
sawing  out  this  piece,  begin  at  the  upper  end  and  rip 
down  to  a,  then  crosscut  from /to  a,  saw  from /to  b,  and 
so  on  until  you  have  cut  down  to  ^,  then  rip  from  the 
lower  end  to  e.  With  the  compass,  lay  out  both  ends 
in  a  semicircle,  and  cut  them  with  a  chisel,  finishing 
with  sandpaper. 

The  steps  and  edges  that  have  been  sawed  will  have  to 
be  made  as  smooth  as  possible  with  the  chisel.  The 
block  plane  can  be  used  with  advantage  on  some  of  the 
longer  edges.  With  a  f "  bit,  bore  a  hole  through  the 
upper  end,  nearer  the  lower  edge  than  the  upper,  so  as 
to  give  the  piece  as  much  strength  as  possible.  The 
support  of  the  jack  is  made  of  three  pieces  ;  two  of  them 
hinged  together,  and  a  handle  fastened  to  the  upper  piece 
with  screws.  The  handle  projects  over  the  end  of  the 
lower  piece  to  prevent  it  from  buckling  or  bending  back 
and  breaking  the  hinged  joint. 

Lay  out  the  handle  i"  thick,  2"  wide,  and  12"  long. 
*j\"  from  one  end  square  a  line  db  across  one  edge.  Lay 
off  a  point  c  on  the  same  end  i"  from  the  edge ;  connect 
this  point  with  the  line  squared  across  the  edge.  From 
<z,  square  a  line  across  the  side  (Fig.  60). 

At  the  other  end  of  the  handle  lay  off  a  point  i"  from 
the  edge  d  and  gauge  a  line  from  this  point  to  e  in  the 
line  squared  across  the  side.  Saw  from  a  to  c  and  from 
d  nearly  to  e.  Saw  from  a  down  to  the  line  de  on  a 
slant  so  that  the  curve  may  be  cut  out  with  a  chisel. 
Draw  a  free-hand  curve  at  e  and  chisel  down  as  close  to 
the  line  as  possible.  Finish  with  a  cabinet  file  and 


WAGON  JACK  69 

sandpaper.  Round  off  the  handle  with  a  spokeshave 
and  sandpaper. 

The  line  ac  is  cut  on  a  slant  because  the  handle  is 
thus  thrown  out  farther  from  the  edge  of  the  support 
and  so  does  not  pinch  the  ringers. 

2.  Making  iron  straps.  -  -  The  iron  straps  are  de- 
scribed under  Blacksmithing. 


FIG.  61.  —  WAGON  JACK  ASSEMBLED. 

3.  Assembling.  —  First,  saw  nearly  through  the  sup- 
port 1 6"  from  one  end  with  a  fine  saw.  Second,  fasten 
the  hinge  to  the  uncut  edge  of  this  support,  taking 
pains  to  have  the  center  of  the  hinge  exactly  over  the 
line  for  the  saw  cut.  Third,  finish  the  saw  cut  down 
to  the  hinge.  Fourth,  fasten  the  iron  straps  in  place 
on  the  upper  end  of  the  support.  Fifth,  fasten  the 
handle  in  place  with  screws.  Sixth,  bolt  the  support 
to  the  leg  of  the  jack. 

To  operate  the  jack,  place  it  under  the  axle  of  the 
wagon,  lifting  the  support  with  the  handle ;  drop  the 

FARM   SHOP   WORK  —  6 


70  WOODWORKING 

support  to  the  ground  in  such  a  way  that  the  support 
is  bent  at  the  hinge,  and  press  down  on  the  handle  until 
the  support  straightens  out,  and  raises  the  axle. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  the  hole  bored  in  the  top  off  center  ? 

2.  Why  does  the  handle  lap  over  the  joint  in  closing  ? 

3.  Why  is  the  lower  end  of  the  support  left  square  ? 

4.  Why  saw  nearly  through  the  support   before  putting  on  the 
hinge  ? 


LESSON  XIII 

HAMMER  HANDLE 

The  hammer  handle  must  be  made  from  some  wood 
that  is  both  strong  and  elastic.  Maple  is  strong,  but 
not  elastic  enough  ;  birch  is  better  than  maple  and  is 
sometimes  used  for  this  purpose.  Ironwood  is  tough 
enough,  but  is  not  elastic.  Hickory  makes  an  ideal 
wood  for  ax  and  hammer  handles,  and  is  the  wood  that 
should  be  selected  if  possible.  The  second  growth 
hickory  is  the  best. 

STOCK 
I  pc.  hickory  i"  x  ij"  X  i&"        Shellac 

TOOLS 

Rule  Plane  Spokeshave 

Try-square  Saw  Sandpaper 

Marking  gauge  Chisel  Cabinet  file 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Laying  out. 

2.  Surfacing  one  side. 

3.  Planing  one  edge. 

4.  Squaring  one  end. 

5.  Laying  out  length,  width,  thickness. 

6.  Planing  to  thickness. 

7.  Sawing  to  length. 

71 


WOODWORKING 


FIG.  62. —  WORKING    DRAWINGS    OF    HAMMER 
HANDLE. 


8.  Planing  to  width. 

9.  Laying  out  curves. 

10.  Cutting  curves. 

11.  Chamfering  corners. 

12.  Finishing. 

1-8.  Operations  from  i  to  8,  inclusive,  are  the  same 
as  those  in  the  first  lesson.     Notice  that  two  of  the 

operations  have  been 
omitted,  viz.,  planing 
to  length  and  saw- 
ing to  width.  They 
are  unnecessary  in 
this  exercise. 

9.  Laying  out  curves.  —  In  laying  out  the  curves,  draw 
a  middle  line  on  each  surface  and  edge.  Square  a  line 
across,  2j"  from  one  end,  which  we  will  call  the  head 
end,  as  it  is  on  this  end  that 
the  head  of  the  hammer  will 
be  fitted.  Square  another 
line  across,  6"  from  the 
other  end,  which  we  will 
call  the  handle  end.  Draw 
these  lines  entirely  around 
the  piece.  On  the  head  end, 
gauge  \"  in  on  the  edges  and 
YQ"  in  from  the  two  surfaces, 
making  a  parallelogram  i" 
X  f ".  Draw  lines  from 

the  2\"  line  to  meet  the  corners  of  this  parallelo- 
gram produced  to  the  edges.  In  laying  out  the  curves, 
measure  from  the  middle  line  Ty  in  each  direction 
across  the  wider  surfaces  and  f"  from  the  center  line 


FIG.  63.  —  LAYING   OUT   CURVES  ON 
HAMMER  HANDLE. 


HAMMER   HANDLE  73 

across  the  narrow  surfaces.  Draw  the  curve  free-hand, 
making  it  as  nearly  like  that  indicated  by  Fig.  63  as 
possible. 

10.  Cutting   curves.  —  In   cutting   the   curves,    first 
saw  down  to  the  curves  at  the  deepest  point  of  the 
curve  and  chisel  down  from  each  end  towards  the  saw 
cut,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  64.     Repeat  this  on  all  sides, 
chiseling  as  close  to  the  line  as  possible  without  cut- 
ting it ;  then  chisel 

down  the  head  to 
the  lines  marked  on 
the  end.  * 

11.  Chamfering. 

—  Chamfer    oft    all     pIG   64.  — CUTTING  CURVES  IN  HAMMER  HANDLE. 

corners,   using    the 

plane  on  all  straight  edges  and  the  spokeshave  on  the 

curves. 

All  chamfers  should  be  the  same  width  if  they  are  cut 
to  the  same  depth.  Work  down  the  curved  surfaces  as 
smooth  as  possible  with  the  spokeshave,  and  the  flat 
surfaces  with  the  plane. 

When  this  operation  is  complete,  the  handle  is 
ready  for  sandpapering.  Hold  it  in  the  vise  and  sand- 
paper all  over,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  35,  Lesson  IV. 

12.  Finishing.  —  In    finishing   the    hammer    handle, 
give  it  a  coat  of  orange  shellac,  let  dry  several  hours, 
and  sandpaper  down  to  the  wood.     The  shellac  fills  the 
pores  of  the  wood  and  renders  it  impervious  to  water. 
If  the  handle  is  to  be  fitted  to  a  head  of  a  hammer,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  trim  down  the  head  end  to  fit  the 
opening  in  the  head,  then  wedge  it  in  place,  as  illustrated 
in  Fig.  32,  Lesson  III. 


74 


WOODWORKING 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  woods  best  suited  for  hammer  handles,  beginning 
with  the  best. 

2.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  saw  down  to  the  lowest  point  of  the 
curve  before  chiseling  ? 

3.  Why  is  the  handle  elliptical  rather  than  round  in  section  ? 

4.  Why  is  the  handle  coated  with  shellac  ? 

5.  Why  is  the  shellac  sandpapered  off  afterwards  ? 


LESSON   XIV 

PLANK  DRAG  FOR   ROADS 

STOCK 

2  pcs.  white  pine  or  hemlock  z"  X  8"  X  7'  I  eyebolt  f "  X  5" 

2  pcs.  white  pine  or  hemlock  z"  X  4"  X  7'  I  chain  2'  6" 

1  pc.  white  pine  or  hemlock  z"  X  4"  X  4'  I  chain  4'  6" 

2  bars  2"  round  hickory  I  ring  3" 

I'lb.  2od  spikes 
TOOLS 

Carpenter's  square          Saw          Brace  and  bit         Hammer 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Laying  out  length. 

2.  Sawing  to  length. 

3.  Laying  out  holes. 

4.  Spiking  planks  together. 

5.  Boring  holes. 

6.  Trimming  ends  of  crosspieces  and  wedging  in  place. 

7.  Laying  out  brace,  sawing,  and  nailing  in  place. 

8.  Boring  hole  for  eyebolt. 

9.  Attaching  chain. 

1-2.  Laying  out  and  sawing. --The  operations,  of 
laying  out  and  sawing  are  very  simple  except  those  for 
the  brace,  and  consist  of  simply  laying  off  the  length, 
squaring  across  one  surface  and  one  edge,  and  sawing 
to  these  lines.  Do  not  lay  out  the  brace  until  the  planks 
are  fastened  together. 

75 


76 


WOODWORKING 


3.  Laying  out  holes.  —  Lay  out  the  holes  in  the  2" 
X  4"  pieces  before  spiking  them  to  the  2"  X  8"  pieces 
so  that  you  will  not  drive  a  spike  where  a  hole  should  be. 
Figure  65  indicates  where  the  holes  should  be  bored. 


FIG.  65.  —  WORKING  DRAWING  OF  PLANK  DRAG. 

4.  Spiking  the  planks.  —  Spike  the  planks  together 
from  the  2"  X  4"  side,  taking  pains  that  the  2"  X  4" 
are  placed  on  the  correct  side  of  the  larger  planks. 

5.  Bore  the  holes  with  an  expansion  bit,  taking  the 
precautions  referred  to  in  Lesson  III. 


FIG.  66.  — LAYING  OUT  BRACE.    (FIRST  STEP.) 

6.  Trim  ends  of  crosspieces  like  those  in  the  saw- 
buck  and  wedge  them  in  the  same  way. 

7.  Laying    out    brace,    sawing,    and    nailing.  —  Lay 
brace  on  top  of  the  planks  and  at  the  proper  angle 


PLANK  DRAG  FOR   ROADS 


77 


(Fig.  66).  Scribe  on  the  under  edge ;  square  across  both 
surfaces  at  both  ends  and  connect  the  ends  of  these 
lines  to  a  line  on  opposite  edge.  This  is  the  length 


FIG.  67.  — LAYING  OUT  BRACE.    (SECOND  STEP.) 

the  brace  would  be  if  it  were  placed  flush  with  the  top  ; 

or  bottom ;   but  as  it  is  inclined  from  the  top  of  the 

back  plank  to  the  middle  of  the  front  plank,  it  must 

be  longer  than  this. 

Lay  one  end  of  the 

brace  on  a  block  4" 

high  (Fig.  67),  place 

the     carpenter's 

square     against     it, 

touching    the    lower 

corner  #,  scribe  along 

this  edge,  also  repeat 

the  operation  at  the 

other    end,    moving 

the  square  until  the 

tongue    touches    the 

upper  corner  b,  and 

scribe. 

Repeat  the  scribing  on  the  opposite  surface  and  con- 
nect the  ends  of  these  lines  with  lines  scribed  across 
the  two  edges.  This  would  be  the  layout  if  there  were 


FIG.  68.  — PLANK  DRAG  ASSEMBLED. 


78  WOODWORKING 

no  2"  X  4"  piece  at  c.  This  necessitates  the  cutting  of 
a  notch.  Lay  it  out  as  in  the  drawing,  measuring  over 
2"  from  the  scribed  line  and  draw  lines  parallel  to  those 
already  drawn.  The  notch  is  about  2"  deep .  Spike 
the  brace  in  place  after  it  has  been  fitted. 

8.  Locate  the  eyebolt  just  back  of  the  brace  and  in 
the  middle  of  the  width  of  the  plank ;    bore  a  \"  hole. 

9.  The  chain  is  fastened  to  the  eyebolt  and  ring  by 
split  links,  and  at  e  it  is  wrapped  around  the  crosspiece 
and  fastened  with  a  split  link. 

Sometimes  the  lower  edge  of  the  front  plank  is  pro- 
tected for  one  half  of  its  length  with  a  strip  of  steel,  as 
that  is  the  place  where  most  of  the  wear  comes. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  With  the  ring  located  as  it  is  in  the  drawing,  how  will  the  drag 
lie  as  it  is  pulled  ? 

2.  Why  is  the  brace  placed  diagonally  from  the  top  of  the  back 
plank  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  front  plank  ? 

3.  Where  is  the  greatest  wear  on  this  form  of  drag  ? 


LESSON  XV 
SEWING  HORSE 

This  sewing  horse  is  not  like  those  used  by  regular 
harness  makers ;  but  is  a  very  simple  design  that  will 
do  on  the  farm,  even  though  it  is  not  so  good  as  the 
other  more  complicated  forms. 

STOCK 


i  pc.  white  pine 

2"XI2/'X3/ 

i  pr.   strap  hinges  3" 

i  pc.  white  pine 

l"XI2"X2'8" 

i  Ib.    2od  spikes 

i  pc.  white  pine 

I"XI2"X3' 

I  Ib.    lod  nails 

2  pcs.  white  pine 

2"x    4"X3'4" 

i  doz.  if"  screws,  F.H.  B 

2  pcs.  white  pine 

l"X     2"XI2" 

TOOLS 

Steel  square 

Turning  saw 

Chisel 

Try-square 

Plane 

Hammer 

Bevel  square 

Drawshave 

Screwdriver 

Handsaw 

Spokeshave 

Brace  and  bit 

Keyhole  saw 
OPERATIONS 


1.  Laying  out  and  cutting  bottom  plank. 

2.  Laying  out  and  cutting  end  board. 

3.  Laying  out  and  cutting  seat. 

4.  Laying  out  and  cutting  jaws. 

5.  Laying  out  and  cutting  cleats  and  boring  screw  holes. 

6.  Assembling. 


79 


8o 


WOODWORKING 


i.  Laying  out  and  cutting  bottom  plank.  —  The  bottom 
plank  is  to  be  3'  long,  12"  wide,  and  2"  thick.  Square 
up  edges  and  ends.  Locate  the  notches  for  the  jaws  by 
measuring  i'  3"  and  i'  7"  from  one  end,  and  squaring 


n 


FIG.  69. — WORKING  DRAWINGS  OF  SEWING  HORSE. 

lines  across.  If  the  jaws  are  wide  enough  to  be  full  4" 
after  being  planed  smooth,  then  make  the  notches  that 
wide;  if  not,  make  them  as  wide  as  the  jaws  will  be, 
and  no  wider.  In  determining  the  angle  at  which  the 
notches  are  to  be  cut,  it  will  be  necessary  to  lay  out  the 


SEWING  HORSE  8 1 

jaws  on  a  piece  of  board  half-size  in  the  following 
manner.  Measure  6"  along  the  end  of  the  board,  and 
from  each  end  of  this  line  draw  a  perpendicular  line 
i'  J\"  long  ;  connect  the 
upper  ends  of  these  lines 
with  another  line,  which 

should  be  just  6"  long  ^^ 

if  the  lines    have  been 

,  .  T  FIG.  70.  —  NOTCHES  CUT  IN  BOTTOM  PLANK. 

drawn    correctly.      Lay 

off  a  point  in  the  middle  of  the  6"  line  and  draw  two 
lines  from  this  point  to  the  ends  of  the  6"  line  on  the 
end  of  the  board.  These  lines  represent  the  inner 
surfaces  of  the  two  jaws.  Set  the  bevel,  with  the 
beam  resting  against  the  end  of  the  board  and  the 
blade  resting  on  one  of  the  lines.  Saw  down  one 
corner  of  the  plank  and  chisel  out,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
70,  testing  the  chiseled  surface  from  time  to  time  with 
the  bevel. 

2.  Laying  out  and  cutting  end  board.  —The  end  board 
is  laid  out  i"  X  12"  X  2'  8"  long  and  squared  up  on 
the  edges  and  ends. 

3.  Laying  out  and  cutting  seat.  —  Lay  out  the  seat 

X  3'.     Square  up  the  edges  and  the  two  ends, 
6      •  plane  the  upper  surface 

~  smooth.     Measure  i'  3" 

from  one  end  and  square 
across  the  surface  ;  then 
measure  i'  7"  from  the 

FIG.  71.  —  SEAT  OF  SEWING  HORSE.  i      -r      i 

same  end,   it    the  jaws 

are  full  4"  wide,  and  square  across.  Compare  with  the 
lay-out  shown  in  Fig.  71.  Measure  in  2"  from  each 
edge  on  line  ab  and  from  these  points  draw  two  lines 


82  WOODWORKING 

parallel  with  the  edges  cd  and  ef.  Lay  out  the  curve 
of  the  seat  as  indicated  by  the  figure. 

In  laying  out  the  holes,  measure  in  from  each 
edge  2f "  and  again  5"  from  each  edge.  At  these  four 
points  draw  lines  parallel  to  the  edges  and  between 
lines  gh  and  ij.  Bore  i"  holes  at  the  opposite  corners 

a  and  b,  Fig.  72.  With 
the  keyhole  saw,  saw  along 
the  adjacent  sides. 

When   both    holes  have 
been  sawed  out,  chisel  out 

FIG.  72.  —  CUTTING  HOLES  IN  SEAT.         .1  •  i         i  -i  ^i 

the  inside  edges  until  they 

are  the  same  bevel  as  the  notches  in  the  bottom  plank. 
A  cross  section  through  the  holes  is  shown  in  Fig.  73. 
The  sides  of  the  two  holes  are  beveled  in  the  opposite 
directions. 

In  cutting  out  the  curve  of  the  seat  either  use  a 
turning  saw,  cutting  just  outside  the  line  and  finishing 
down  to  the  line  with  the  spokeshave;  or  with  the 
handsaw,  saw  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  concave  curve 
and  chisel  from  both  sides  down  to  this  kerf,  then 
finish  with  the  spokeshave.  Saw  off  the  corners  and 
with  the  drawshave  cut  down  to  b  ^ 

the  lines.  ^^  frmm\m^  ^^ 


If     you     have     a     turning     saw,     FlG-  73-- SECTION  THROUGH 
.  .  •  n     '  SEAT,  SHOWING  HOLES, 

use    that    in    cutting    all    curves, 

turning    the    handles    whenever    the    frame   hits    the 

board. 

The  top  of  the  curve  is  rounded  with  the  spokeshave 
to  make  it  more  comfortable. 

4.  Laying  out  and  cutting  jaws.  —  The  lower  ends  of 
the  jaws  will  have  to  be  beveled  at  the  same  angle  as 


SEWING   HORSE 


the  edges  of  the  notches ;  so  if  you  have  the  bevel 
still  set  at  that  angle,  use  it ;  but  if  not,  then  set  it 
from  the  board  you  laid  out,  not  from  the  angle  of  the 
notches.  (Always  take  measurements  and  angles  from 
some  one  pattern  or  measure.  Never  take  measure- 
ments from  each  piece  of  work  finished,  or  the  last 
piece  will  be  far  different  from  the  first  piece  or  pattern.) 
Bevel  the  lower  ends  of  the  jaws,  and  also  the  upper 
ends  at  the  same  angle,  but  from  opposite  surfaces. 

Then  with  the  compass  set  at  2"  strike  a  curve 
at  the  upper  ends 
and  chisel  down 
to  this  curve ;  and 
finish  with  the  block 
plane.  Bore  holes 
in  the  lower  ends 
of  the  jaws  for  the 
2od  spikes  so  the 
ends  will  not  split 
when  the  spikes  are 
driven  in. 

5.  Laying  out  and  cutting  cleats  and  boring  screw  holes. 
—  The  cleats  are  laid  out  and  planed  i"  X  2"  X  12". 
Square  up  and  bore  6  holes  for  the  screws,  staggering 
the  holes,  as   shown  in  the  drawing. 

6.  Assembling.  —  First,  nail  the  end  board  on  to  the 
plank.     Second,  screw  the  cleats  to  the  top  of  the  seat 
on  each  side   of  the   holes,  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 
Third,  fasten  the  seat  to  the  end  board  with  the  strap 
hinges    on    the    under   side.     Fourth,    place    the   jaws 
through  the  holes  in  the  seat  and  nail  the  lower  ends 
to  the  plank. 


FIG.  74.  —  SEWING  HORSE  ASSEMBLED. 


84  WOODWORKING 

By  lifting  the  seat,  the  jaws  can  be  opened  ;  by  sitting 
on  the  seat,  the  jaws  can  be  closed  with  considerable 
force. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  a  2"  plank  better  for  the  bottom  than  a  I."  board  ? 

2.  Why  are  cleats  necessary  across  the  top  of  the  seat  ? 

3.  Why  are  the  tops  of  the  jaws  rounded  ? 


LESSON   XVI 

TRUSSED  LADDER 

STOCK 

4  pcs.  white  oak  i"  X  i"  X  10'  12  carriage  bolts  J"  X  6" 

10  pcs.  white  oak  i"  X  5"  X  12"  8  carriage  bolts  \"  X  \" 

2  pcs.  white  oak  i"  X  i"  X  12"  4  carriage  bolts  J"  x  3" 

Shellac 

TOOLS 

Rule  S       Try-square  Keyhole  saw        Marking  gauge 

Saw  Brace  and  bit        Spokeshave  Sandpaper 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Squaring  up  side  strips  and  cutting  taper  at  ends. 

2.  Squaring  up  steps  and  cutting  notches, 

3.  Making  rungs. 

4.  Laying  out  and  boring  holes. 

5.  Assembling  and  shellacking. 

i.   Squaring  up  side  strips  and  cutting  taper  at  ends.  — 
The  side  strips  are  planed  I "  square  and  are  then  clamped 
to  two  blocks  3"  wide, 
placed  about  3'  from 
each  end.     The  ends 

are     Overlapped     and    ^IG-  ?$•  —  OVERLAPPING  ENDS  OF  SIDE  STRIPS. 

held  in  place  with  clamps,  as  shown  in  Fig.  75.     Then  a 
line  ab  is  drawn  from  where  the  pieces  cross  each  other. 

FARM   SHOP   WORK — 7  8$ 


86 


WOODWORKING 


Saw  the  ends  of  the  strips  along  this  line  and  plane 
smooth. 

2.  Squaring  up  steps  and  cutting  notches. — The  steps 
are  all  squared  up  to  the  same  size  and  planed  smooth. 
After  the  ladder  is  assembled  temporarily,  some  of  the 
steps  near  the  end  will  be  found  extending  out  beyond 
the  strips..  Cut  six  steps  as  shown  in  Fig.  76,  with  the 


T 


X 


FIG.  76.  —  WORKING  DRAWINGS  OF  TRUSSED  LADDER. 


i"  notches  cut  at  each  corner.     Two  of  the  re- 


maining four  steps  will  be  cut  with  the  notches  \\" 
deep,  and  the  other  two  with  the  notches  2"  deep. 
The  tenons  between  these  three  kinds  of  notches  are  3", 
2",  and  i"  wide  respectively. 

3.  Making  rungs.  —  The  two  rungs,  one  for  each  end 
of  the  ladder,  are  made  i"  in  diameter  and  12"  long, 
by  the  method  given  in  Lesson  III. 

4.  Laying  out  and  boring  holes.  —  Locate  the  holes  as 


TRUSSED   LADDER  87 

follows.  5"  from  one  end  square  a  line  across  the  strips  ; 
10"  from  this  line  square  across  another  line,  and  re- 
peat every  10" '.  The  last  line  will  be  5"  from  the  farther 
end  of  the  strips.  With  the  gauge  set  at  J",  gauge 
lines  across  each  of  the  lines  squared  across ;  these  lo- 
cate the  J"  holes  that  are  to  be  bored  for  the  bolts  which 
will  hold  the  strips  together.  Place  the  ends  of  two 
steps  between  the  strips  and  clamp  in  place  with  car- 
riage clamps,  as  in  Fig.  75.  Be  sure  that  the  steps  are 
centered  on  the  lines  squared  across,  and  that  the 
shoulders  of  the  steps  are  up  tight  against  the  strips. 
Bore  a  \"  hole  through  the  strip  and  halfway  through 
the  step  ;  reverse  and  bore  from  the  opposite  side,  meet- 
ing the  first  hole  in  the  center  of  the  step.  This  insures 
a  straight  hole.  As  soon  as  the  hole  is  bored,  place  a 
bolt  in  it,  and  screw  on  a  nut  and  washer.  Continue 
this  until  all  steps  are  in  place.  The  steps  near  the  end 
will  project  beyond  the  strips.  Mark  them  along  the 
edge  of  the  strips,  so  that  they  can  be  taken  out  and  cut 
down  to  size.  They  are  to  be  cut  the  same  shape  as  the 
full-sized  steps,  but  of  course  all  dimensions  should  be 
reduced.  When  all  the  steps  have  been  fitted,  fasten 
the  ends  of  the  side  strips  together  with  large  screws. 
Bore  i"  holes  for  the  rungs  at  the  place  marked  out  for 
them,  and  then  bore  J"  holes  for  the  J"  bolts  that  hold 
the  rungs  in  place.  Fasten  the  rungs  in  place  with  J" 
bolts. 

5.  Assembling  and  shellacking.  —  When  the  ladder 
has  been  fitted,  screw  all  the  nuts  tight  and  give  the 
whole  a  coat  of  shellac.  Follow  this  with  a  sandpaper- 
ing, and  a  second  coat  of  shellac.  Then  the  ladder  is 
ready  for  use. 


88  WOODWORKING 

t 
QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  clamp  the  strips  in  place  before  laying 
out  the  taper  for  the  ends  ? 

2.  Of  what  use  are  the  notches  in  the  ends  of  the  steps  ? 

3.  How  do  you  lay  out  an  octagon  in  laying  out  the  rungs  ? 

4.  Why  not  bore  all  the  holes  straight  through  the  strips  instead 
of  boring  them  after  the  steps  have  been  fitted  in  place  ? 

5.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  fasten  the  ends  with  screws  before 
boring  the  i"  hole  for  the  rungs  ? 


LESSON  XVII 
COMBINATION  LADDER 

A  combination  ladder  is  one  which  can  be  used  as  a 
step  ladder  and  also  changed  into  a  longer  ladder  of  the 

common  type. 

STOCK 

2  side  strips  oak  f  "  X  4"  X  5'  I J  doz.  screws  f ",  No.  8 

2  side  bars  elm  i"  X  2"  X  4'  6"  2  doz.  screws  2",  No.  10 

5  steps  oak  f "  X  5"  X  i'  5"  i  bolt  f"  X  i'  7" 

I  step  oak  i"  X  6"  X  i'  10"  2  bolts  f"  X  2j" 

5  rungs  oak  i"  round  X  i'  6"  2  iron  plates 

2  iron  straps 

Chain  and  screw  eye  3  iron  hooks 


TOOLS 

Steel  square 
Try-square 
Bevel 

Saw 
Plane 
Brace  and  bit 

Screwdriver 
Chisel 
Marking  gauge 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Laying  out  and  cutting  side  pieces. 

2.  Laying  out  and  boring  side  bars. 

3.  Laying  out  and  cutting  steps. 

4.  Laying  out  and  making  rungs. 

5.  Making  iron  plates  and  straps. 

6.  Cutting  the  curve  in  the  ends  of  the  side  pieces. 

7.  Assembling  and  shellacking. 

89 


9o 


WOODWORKING 


i.  Laying  out  and  cutting  side  pieces.  —  The  side 
pieces  are  f"  X  4"  X  5',  made  of  oak  or  some  other 
hardwood  and  planed  smooth  with  the  edges  and  ends 
squared.  Lay  out  the  bevel  for  the  top  and  bottom 
and  steps  in  the  same  way  as  in  Lesson  XV. 


FIG.  77.  —  WORKING  DRAWINGS  OF  COMBINATION  LADDER. 

Lay  out,  half  size,  a  side  piece  on  a  board  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner.  Measure  along  the  edge  of  the  board 
2'  2"  and  from  this  point  square  in  i'  3"  from  the 
edge.  Draw  a  line  from  the  corner  of  the  board  to 
the  point  just  located.  This  line  represents  the  in- 
clination of  the  side  pieces  when  the  ladder  is  standing. 


COMBINATION  LADDER  91 

Set  the  beam  of  the  bevel  against  the  end  of  the  board 
and  adjust  the  blade  along  the  inclined  line. 

Beginning  at  #,  Fig.  77,  lay  off  the  bevel  ae  and  meas- 
ure up  from  point  a  9"  to  b.  Lay  off  another  bevel, 
then  measure  f "  to  c,  and  lay  off  another  bevel.  Con- 
tinue this  operation  until  all  steps  are  laid  off.  On  the 
other  side  piece  repeat  the  operation,  but  on  the  reverse 
side ;  that  is,  so  that  when  both  pieces  are  laid  off  and 
placed  together,  face  to  face,  the  lines  will  all  coincide, 
or  touch  each  other. 

At  the  points  where  these  bevel  lines  touch  the  edges, 
square  across  the  edges  with  the  try-square.  With  the 
marking  gauge  set  at  J",  gauge  between  the  lines  along 
both  edges,  holding  the  guide  against  the  inner  surface 
of  the  piece.  This  means  that  the  grooves  are  to  be  f " 
wide  and  J"  deep.  With  the  backsaw,  saw  very  care- 
fully inside  the  lines. 

A  method  very  often  used  when  accurate  work  is 
desired  is  as  follows  :  select  a  small  strip  of  hardwood 
about  6"  long  and  i"  square;  lay  this  on  the  outside 
of  the  line  with  the  edge  just  covering  the  line  and  fasten 
in  place  with  two  carriage  clamps ;  hold  the  blade  of 
the  saw  against  the  piece  and  saw  down  to  the  required 
depth,  I". 

When  all  grooves  have  been  cut,  chisel  out  the  grooves 
with  a  \"  chisel.  Chisel  from  both  edges  towards  the 
middle  so  as  not  to  get  the  groove  too  deep.  Test  the 
bottom  of  the  groove  from  time  to  time  by  laying  the 
edge  of  the  chisel  along  the  bottom. 

2.  Laying  out  and  boring  side  bars.  -  -  The  side  bars 
are  i"  X  2"  X  4'  6".  Elm  makes  better  side  bars 
than  any  other  wood  because  of  its  toughness.  Plane, 


92  WOODWORKING 

square  up  the  edges  and  sides.  With  the  compass 
set  at  \"  radius,  draw  semicircles  at  each  end  of 
the  bars.  Saw  along  each  semicircle  with  a  keyhole 
saw. 

Lay  out  the  holes  as  follows  :  i"  from  one  end  square 
a  line  across  the  surface ;  10"  from  this  line  square 
another  line  across ;  9"  from  this  line  square  another 
line  across,  and  so  on  every  9"  until  five  holes  have  been 
located.  This  brings  the  last  hole  13"  from  the  end  of 
the  bar. 

Set  the  marking  gauge  at  i"  and  gauge  a  short  line 
cutting  each  of  the  five  lines  drawn.  Repeat  these 
operations  on  the  other  bar. 

Set  the  gauge  at  |"  and  gauge  from  both  edges  be- 
tween the  first  two  holes ;  this  is  for  a  slot  which  is  to 
be  cut  8J"  long  and  \"  wide. 

The  slot  begins  at  a  point  \'.'  from  the  edge  of  the  first 
hole.  You  must  lay  this  out  accurately  or  the  ladder 
will  not  work  properly  when  you  want  to  make  the 
change  from  a  step  ladder  to  an  extension  ladder. 

When  the  work  is  all  laid  out,  bore  the  holes  for  the 
rungs,  using  a  f  "  bit  and  boring  from  both  sides  so  as 
to  insure  clean  holes. 

For  the  slot,  use  a  f "  bit  and  bore  a  row  of  holes  in- 
side the  gauged  lines  as  close  together  as  possible  ;  then 
chisel  out  the  slot  smooth,  chiseling  from  both  sides. 

3.  Laying  out  and  cutting  steps.  —  Surface  the  steps, 
square  up  the  edges  and  the  ends  so  that  they  are  all 
exactly  of  the  same  dimensions,  —  f"  X  5"  X  i'  \\' '. 
As  the  grooves  cut  for  the  steps  are  only  f "  wide,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  plane  the  thickness  a  trifle  over  f ", 
which  we  will  call  f "  full,  so  as  to  insure  the  steps  fit- 


COMBINATION  LADDER 


93 


ting  tight   enough   to   make  it   necessary  to   drive   in 
with  the  mallet. 

Some  workmen  advise  planing  down  the  ends  of  the 
steps  until  they  fit  the  groove.  This  method  is  not  ad- 
vised, as  it  does  not  give  strong  joints  where  strength 
is  needed ;  and  it 
is  a  sort  of  cut-and- 
try  method,  which 
is  not  recom- 
mended in  any 
work  where  it  can 
be  avoided. 

If  the  steps  are 
not  all  the  same 
length,  the  longest 
will  prevent  the 
others  from  fitting 
properly.  The  top 
step  is  longer  and 
wider  than  the 
others,  being  i'  10" 
long  and  6"  wide. 

4.  Laying  out  and 
making  rungs.  —  In 
making  the  rungs, 
saw  out  the  strips  i"  square  and  i'  6"  long;  square 
up  on  all  four  sides  with  the  plane  until  the  pieces 
are  exactly  i"  square.  Lay  off  on  each  stick  an  octa- 
gon in  the  following  manner.  First,  measure  across 
the  diagonal  of  the  end  of  the  stick.  Second,  set  the 
gauge  at  one  half  this  distance  and  gauge  from  all  four 
sides  in  both  directions,  which  will  leave  two  lines  on 


FIG.  78.  — DETAIL  AT  TOP  OF  STEP  LADDER. 


94 


WOODWORKING 


each  surface.  Third,  place  the  square  piece  in  the 
board  made  for  this  purpose,  which  is  shown  in  Fig. 
125,  page  155  ;  plane  each  corner  down  to  the  gauged 
lines  and  you  will  have  an  octagon.  Fourth,  lay  the 
octagonal  pieces  on  the  bench  against  the  bench  dog 
and  make  about  three  cuts  with  the  plane  on  each 
of  the  eight  corners  remaining.  Fifth,  hold  the  stick 
in  the  vise  and  with  coarse  sandpaper  cut  off  the  re- 
maining corners,  turning  the  stick  frequently  so  as  to 

insure  even  cut- 
ting. In  this  way 
it  is  possible  to 
make  a  stick  nearly 
as  round  as  it  would 
be  if  turned  in  a 
lathe.  Trim  down 
the  ends  to  fit  the 
holes  and  split 
them  with  a  saw 
for  the  wedges. 

5.  Making  iron  plates  and  straps.  -  -  The  ironwork 
is  described  under  Blacksmithing. 

6.  Cutting  the  curve  in  the  ends  of  the  side  pieces.— 
In  cutting  the  curve  under  the  top  step,  lay  a  side  piece 
on  the  bench  and  place  a  block  against  the  edge  near 
the  acute  angle  of  the  top  of  the  piece.     Gauge  a  line  i" 
from  the  edge  of  the  block  that  rests  against  the  side 
piece  and  set  the  compass  at  2" ;   scribe  an  arc  similar 
to  the  one  in  the  detailed  drawing,  Fig.  78.     Saw  this 
out  with  a  keyhole  saw  and  smooth  with  sandpaper. 

7.  Assembling  and  shellacking. — First,  fit  all  steps  in 
place  and  fasten  with  2"  screws ;    and  fasten  on  the  top 


FIG.  79. —  DETAIL  SHOWING  ATTACHMENT  OF  HOOK. 


COMBINATION   LADDER  95 

step.  Second,  drive  the  rungs  in  place  so  that  the  saw 
kerfs  in  the  ends  are  perpendicular  to  the  sides  of  the 
bars,  otherwise  driving  in  the  wedges  will  be  apt  to  split 
the  bars.  Then  drive  in  the  wedges.  Third,  put  the 
iron  straps  and  plates  in  place,  and  fasten  the  two  parts 
of  the  ladder  together  with  the  bolt.  Fourth,  the  hooks 
are  to  be  fastened  to  the  side  bars  where  the  next  to  the 
top  step  is  located,  as  shown  in  the  detailed  drawing, 
Fig-  79-  Take  out  the  screw ;  saw  a  slit  deep  enough 
to  admit  the  hook ;  and  replace  the  screw  through  the 
eye  of  the  hook.  Fifth,  fasten  the  chain  and  the  screw 
eye  in  place  so  that  the  ladder  can  be  spread  the  proper 
distance.  Sixth,  shellac  and  sandpaper. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  are  the  steps  let  into  the  sides  ? 

2.  Why  is  the  top  of  the  support  ironed  ? 

3.  Why  do  you  bore  holes  from  both  sides  ? 

4.  How  do  you  lay  out  an  octagon  ? 


LESSON  XVIII 
FARMER'S   LEVEL 

The  farmer's  level  consists  of  a  tripod  and  a  turn- 
table composed  of  a  crosspiece  holding  two  uprights, 
to  which  are  fastened  two  .glass  tubes  connected  by  a 
rubber  tube.  The  turntable  is  fastened  to  the  tripod 
head  by  a  pivot  screw,  which  enables  it  to  rotate  in 
any  direction. 


FIG.  80.  —  METHOD  OF  USING  FARMER'S  LEVEL. 

Water  is  poured  into  the  tubes  until  within  an  inch 
or  so  of  the  top.  When  the  tripod  is  set  up,  one  can  be 
sure  that  the  water  in  the  tubes  is  at  the  same  level,  and 
so  a  line  sighted  across  the  water  surfaces  is  horizontal 
or  level.  Suppose  it  were  required  to  find  the  difference 
in  level  of  two  points  A  and  B,  Fig.  80.  Set  the  level 
about  midway  between  A  and  B  and  sight  across  to 
the  leveling  rod  placed  at  A.  When  the  target  is  raised 

96 


FARMER'S  LEVEL  97 

so  it  can  be  seen  on  a  level  with  the  water  surface,  then 
it  is  at  the  same  level  as  the  surface  of  the  water.  Note 
the  height  of  the  target  above  the  ground  at  A.  Place 
the  rod  at  B  and  raise  target  until  it  is  level  with  the 
surface  of  the  water  in  the  tubes.  The  difference  be- 
tween the  height  of  the  target  when  at  A  and  when  at  B 
is  the  difference  between  the  level  of  the  ground  at  A 
and  B.  If  the  target  at  A  stood  at  2',  and  the  one  at  B 
6',  then  the  point  B  is  4'  lower  than  A.  Without  mov- 
ing the  level  one  can  determine  the  heights  of  several 
points  by  turning  the  turntable  in  different  directions. 

STOCK 

I  pc.  white  pine  f  "  X  8"  X  4' 

1  pc.  hard  wood  f  "  X  6"  square 

2  glass  tubes  6"  X  f "  diameter 
i  rubber  tube  to  fit  glass  tubes 
18  screws  i",  No.  38,  F.  H.  B. 
5  screws  ij",  No.  38,  F.  H.  B. 
4  screws  \n ',  No.  3,  R.  H.  Bl. 

TOOLS 

Rule  Try-square  Marking  gauge 

Ripsaw  Plane  Brace  and  bit 

Turning  saw        Screwdriver  Gouge 

Chisel  Cabinet  file  Sandpaper 

Carpenter's  square 

OPERATIONS 

Legs  of  Tripod 

1.  Laying  out  the  legs. 

2.  Ripping  the  legs. 

3.  Planing  the  edges  of  the  legs. 


9g  WOODWORKING 

4.  Laying  off  the  middle  lines  on  the  legs. 

5.  Squaring  up  the  ends. 

6.  Locating  and  boring  holes  for  hinges. 

7.  Pointing  the  smaller  ends  of  the  legs. 

Tripod  Head 

1.  Surfacing  one  side. 

2.  Gauging  to  thickness. 

3.  Surfacing  other  side. 

4.  Laying  off  the  circle. 

5.  Cutting  the  circle. 

6.  Laying  off  and  boring  screw  holes  for  hinges. 

7.  Boring  hole  for  pivot. 

Turntable 

1.  Surfacing  one  side. 

2.  Planing  one  edge. 

3.  Gauging  to  thickness. 

4.  Surfacing  other  side. 

5.  Planing  other  edge. 

6.  Laying  out  length. 

7.  Sawing  to  length. 

8.  Planing  ends. 

9.  Boring  the  holes  in  the  uprights. 

10.  Gouging  the  groove  in  the  crosspiece. 

11.  Boring  the  screw  holes  and  pivot  hole. 

All  Parts 
I.  Assembling. 

LEGS  OF  TRIPOD 

i  and  2.  Laying  out  and  ripping  the  legs.  -  -  There  are 
several  methods  of  laying  out  the  legs,  but  the  one 
given  here  is  economical  in  both  material  and  labor; 


FARMER'S   LEVEL 


99 


and  in  making  large  or  small  pieces  it  is  advisable  to  be 
as  economical  in  lumber  and  time  as  possible. 

Select  a  pine  board  that  has  been  surfaced  or  planed 


FIG.  81.  —  WORKING  DRAWINGS  or  FARMER'S  LEVEL. 

on  both  sides  and  is  about  f  "  thick.  Measure  off  4' 
in  length.  (See  Fig.  82.)  From  one  corner  a  measure  off 
3"  to  b.  From  the  other  corner  c  measure  off  i"  to  d. 
Draw  a  line  between  b  and  d. 


4?'  or 


FIG.  82.  —  LAYING  OFF  LEGS  OF  TRIPOD. 

Before  laying  off  the  other  legs,  this  one  should  be 
ripped  off;  for  the  reason  that  if  all  the  legs  were  laid 
off  at  once  and  then  ripped,  they  would  be  too  small. 
Therefore,  lay  off  one  leg  and  rip,  being  careful  to  saw 


100  WOODWORKING 

in  the  material  to  be  removed.  Plane  the  edge  of  the 
board  just  ripped  before  laying  out  the  second  leg ;  and 
lay  off  the  second  leg  with  the  point  e  3"  from  c  and  the 
point/  \"  from  b.  Rip  this  off  and  plane  the  edge  of 
the  board  before  laying  off  the  third  leg;  and  then  lay 
off  g  3"  from/  and  hi"  from  e  and  rip. 

You  will  notice  that  the  legs  have  been  laid  off  so 
that  the  least  possible  material  has  been  used  and  the 
least  possible  number  of  saw  cuts,  which  leaves  enough 
material  for  the  turntable. 

3.  Planing  the  edges  of  the  legs.  —  One  edge  of  each 
leg  will  be  left  rough  by  the  ripsaw  and  should  be  planed 

down    smooth    and    to    the   required 

dimensions. 

4.   Laying  off   the  middle  lines   on 

the  legs.  —  It  will  be  necessary  to  lay 

off  middle  lines  on  each  leg  before 
FIG  83.— HINGE  FOR  the  ends  can  be  squared  up.  Select 

FARMER'S  LEVEL.  ....  1,1 

a  point  midway  between  a  and  b  and 
another  midway  between  c  and  d  and  connect  these 
points  with  a  line. 

5.  Squaring  up  the  ends.  --With  a  carpenter's  steel 
square  placed  so  that  its  inner  edge  touches  the  middle 
line,  square  across  the  wider  ends  of  all  three  legs.     The 
narrow  ends  do  not  need  squaring  up  as  they  are  to  be 
pointed.     It  is  unnecessary  to  plane  the  ends  smooth. 

6.  Locating  and  boring  screw  holes  for  hinges.  -  -  The 
hinges  should  be  of  the  pattern  indicated  in  Fig.  83. 
The  strap  leaf  should  extend  along  the  leg,  and  the  other 
leaf  should  be  fastened  to  the  tripod  head.     It  is  better 
not   to  fasten  the  hinges  to  the    legs  until   the  screw 
holes  have  been  bored  in  the  tripod  head. 


FARMER'S  LEVEL 

7.  Pointing  the  smaller  ends  of  the  legs.  —  Measure 
up  \"  from  the  smaller  end  of  the  legs  and  square 
around  on  four  sides.  From  these  marks,  chisel  towards 
the  center  line  on  the  two  surfaces  and  towards  the 
middle  from  the  two  edges. 

TRIPOD  HEAD 

1 .  Surfacing  one  side.  —  Select  a  hard  wood,  as  maple, 
birch,  or  oak.     It  will  be  necessary  to  have  a  board 
at  least  6"  square  and  f  "  thick.    Sur- 
face one  side. 

2.  Gauging  to  thickness.  —  Gauge 
to  thickness  on  all  edges. 

3.  Surfacing  other  side.  —  Surface 
the  other  side,  planing  down  to  the 
gauge  lines. 

4.  Laying   off  the   circle.  —  Draw 


FIG.  84.  —  LAYING  OFF 
CIRCLE. 


FIG.  85.  —  METHOD  OF  HOLDING  A  TURN- 
ING SAW. 

FARM   SHOP   WORK  —  8 


diagonals  from  the  four 
corners  of  the  board. 
Locate  the  center  and 
then  draw  the  circle  with 
the  compass  set  at  3" 
radius.  (See  Fig.  84.) 

5.  Cutting  the  circle.— 
There  are  two  methods  of 
cutting  the  circle.  If 
you  have  a  turning  saw, 
use  it  and  saw  about  -jV' 
outside  the  line,  holding 
the  saw  as  illustrated  in 
Fig.  85.  Then  it  is  nec- 
essary to  smooth  the  edge 


•102 


WOODWORKING 


FIG.  86.  — CUTTING  OUT  CIRCLE  WITH 
A  CHISEL. 


down  with  a  cabinet  file  and  sandpaper.     Take  pains  to 
keep  the  edge  square  with  the  surfaces.     The  second 

method  is  to  saw  off  the 
corners  and  chisel  down  to 
the  line  as  in  Fig.  86.  This 
method  can  be  followed 
when  no  turning  saw  is 
available.  Be  careful  to 
place  a  board  under  the 
piece  so  as  to  prevent  the 
chisel  cutting  the  bench 
top.  Always  chisel  in  the 
direction  of  the  grain  and 


not  in  the  crosswise  direc- 
tion, to  avoid  splitting  the 
wood.  Be  sure  the  under 

board  is  flat,  or  you  will  be  apt  to  splinter  the  under 

side  of  the  piece. 

6.  Laying  off  and  boring  screw  holes  for  the  hinges.  - 

There  are  three  legs  to  be  fastened  to  the  tripod  head. 

In  order  to  locate  them  equidistant  it  will  be  necessary 

to  divide  the  circle  into  three  equal 

parts.     Draw  a  diameter  through  the 

center  of  the  circle  and  with  one  leg 

of  the    compass    at    point    <z,    scribe 

points    c    and    b.     The    distance    be- 
tween the  legs  of  the  compass  must 

be  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  circle. 

These  two  points  with  d  divide  the 

circle  into  three  equal  parts.     (See  Fig. 

87.)     From  points  c  and  b  draw  lines  to  the  center ;  on 

these  lines  locate  the  three  hinges  by  placing  the  center 


FIG.  87.  — POINTS  AT 
WHICH  HINGES  ARE 
ATTACHED. 


FARMER'S  LEVEL  103 

of  the  hinges  on  the  lines  and  the  edges  equidistant  from 
the  edge  of  the  circle,  as  at  e.  Mark  the  screw  holes 
and  bore  them  with  a  gimlet  bit  a  trifle  smaller  than  the 
screws  to  be  used. 

7.  Boring  hole  for  pivot. — To  bore  the  hole  for  the 
pivot  screw,  select  a  bit  a  trifle  smaller  than  the  screw 
and  bore  a  hole  in  the  center  of  the  circle  nearly  through 
the  board. 

TURNTABLE 

1-8.  —  For  the  turntable,  use  the  fourth  piece  of  pine 
cut  off  from  the  legs.  The  operations  1-8  are  the  same 
as  those  of  Lesson  I  and  need  not  be  repeated  here. 

9.  Boring  the  holes  in  the  upright  blocks.  —  When 
the     two     short 

blocks  have  been 
properly  squared 
up,  fasten  them 
together  in  the 

Vise,     end      gram  FlG   88.  — SUPPORT  FOR  GLASS  TUBES. 

uppermost.  Lo- 
cate the  center  by  drawing  diagonals  from  the  corners, 
and  bore  the  larger  hole  first,  halfway  through  the 
block.  Reverse  the  ends  and  bore  the  smaller  hole 
the  rest  of  the  way,  meeting  the  other  hole  in  the 
center.  (See  Fig.  81.) 

The  smaller  hole  is  the  size  of  the  glass  tubes,  and 
the  larger  hole  the  size  of  the  rubber  tubing  after  it  has 
been  attached  to  the  glass  tubes. 

10.  Gouging  the   groove   in   the   crosspiece.  -  -  The 
part  of  the  rubber  tube  that  connects  the  glass  tubes 
must  have  a  groove  in  which  to  lie ;    so  the  crosspiece 


104  WOODWORKING 

must  be  grooved  with  a  half-round  gouge  to  a  depth 
equal  to  one  half  the  diameter  of  the  rubber  tubing. 

ii.  Boring  the  screw  holes  and  pivot  hole.  — The  up- 
rights are  to  be  fastened  to  the  crosspiece,  as  in  Fig.  88, 
with  screws  from  the  under  side,  two  screws  in  each 
end.  In  the  center  of  the  crosspiece  and  at  the  bottom 
of  the  groove  bore  a  hole  the  size  of  the  pivot  screw, 
and  countersink. 

ALL  PARTS 

i.  Assembling.  —  In  assembling,  first  fasten  the 
hinges  to  the  under  side  of  the  tripod  head  ;  then  fasten 
the  legs  on  the  hinges  with  screws.  Next  fasten  the 
turntable  to  the  tripod  by  a  pivot  screw  through  the 
center.  Now  fasten  the  tubes  and  rubber  tubing  to 
the  uprights  by  strips  of  leather  or  tin  held  in  place  by 
small,  round-headed,  blue  screws. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  In  laying  out  taper  legs,  why  do  you  reverse  every  other  piece  ? 

2.  Why  do  you  plane  down  one  edge  before  laying  out  the  next 
leg? 

3.  Why  is  a  middle  line  on  each  leg  necessary  ? 

4.  Which  method  of  cutting  a  circle  do  you  prefer  ?     Why  ? 

5.  Why  is  it  best  to  have  a  groove  in  the  crosspiece  for  the  rubber 
tubing  ? 


LESSON  XIX 

LEVELING  ROD 

STOCK 

I  pc.  pine  J"  x  2"  X  5'  I  pc.  brass,  16  gauge,  7"  X  4" 

i  pc.  pine  \"  x  i\"  X  5'  6"  I  pc.  spring  brass  4"  X  i" 

1  pc.  pine  i"  x  ii"  X  5'  6"  2  screws  f ",  No.  6 

2  pcs.  pine  i"  x  f"  X  5'  6"  4  screws  i",  No.  8 
2  pcs.  pine  1"  X  I"  X  5'  6"  J  Ib.  J"  brads 

i  pc.  pine  f"  x  6"  x  6"  J  Ib.  i"  brads 

Glue  and  shellac 

TOOLS 

Rule  Try-square  Marking  gauge 

Plane  Hammer  Sandpaper 

File  Drill 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Gauging  and  planing  stock  to  size. 

2.  Assembling  all  pieces  and  shellacking. 

3.  Laying  off  graduations. 

4.  Making  the  target. 

i.  Gauging  and  planing  stock  to  size.  --  If  the  lum- 
ber comes  in  the  rough,  it  should  be  a  quarter  over  size 
to  allow  for  surfacing.  This  exercise  requires  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  accuracy  in  measuring  and  planing. 

Plane  up  the  piece  a,  "Fig.  91,  to  size,  following  the 
directions  given  in  previous  lessons  as  to  planing  up 

105 


io6 


WOODWORKING 


stock.  The  dimensions  of  this  piece  will 
be  J"  X  2"  X  5' 6".  As  it  is  a  thin,  nar- 
row piece,  it  is  apt  to  buckle  and  break  in 
planing.  To  prevent  this,  fasten  the  two 
ends  to  a  board,  as  shown  in  Fig.  90,  by 
boring  f"  holes  through  the  piece  and 
board  and  driving  hardwood  pegs  in  flush 
with  the  top  of  the  piece  to  be  planed. 
Very  thin  lumber  can  be  surfaced  this 
way,  and  all  the  pieces  in  this  exercise 
can  be  planed  on  the  same  board  with 
the  same  pegs  and  board.  Each  of  strips 
d,  e,  /,  and  g,  Fig.  91,  are  \"  thick  and 
so  can  be  planed  in  one  strip  and  cut 
apart  afterwards.  In  cutting  apart  the 
strips,  some  lumber  will  be  wasted,  as  the 
edges  must  be  planed,  so  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  allow  for  this  waste  and  make  the 
piece  from  which  they  are  cut  \\"  wide, 
although  the  sum  of  the  widths  is  only  I J". 
It  will  be  almost  impossible  to  cut  off 
the  narrow  strips  with  the  saw,  so  the 
FIG.  89.— LEVEL-  following  method  is  recommended.  File 

ING  ROD,  FRONT     ,  r     ,  ,  .  •!    • 

AND  SIDE  VIEWS,  the  spur  of  the  marking  gauge  until  it 
resembles  the  point  of  a  knife,  and  set  the 
gauge  at  a  little  over  \ "  and  gauge  on  both  surfaces  as 
deeply  as  possible;  the  spur  will  cut  nearly  through, 
so  that  a  jackknife  drawn  along  the  groove  will  easily 
cut  them  apart.  Next  ,_ 
plane  up  the  two  edges  \\ 
and  cut  the  second  strip  ~ 

FIG.  90.  — HOLDING  A  THIN  STRIP  FOR 

the  same  width,     rlane  PLANING. 


LEVELING   ROD 


107 


up  the  edges,  set  the  gauge  at  f",  and  cut  two  more 
strips  in  the  same  way. 

2.  Assembling  all  pieces  and  shellacking.  —  Strip  c 
should  now  be  glued  and  nailed  to  strip  b  in  the  posi- 
tion shown  in  Fig.  91,  end  view. 

Then  strips/  and  g  should  be  glued  and  nailed  together 
and  fastened  to  strip  a ;  likewise  strips  d  and  e.  Care- 
fully wipe  away  all  glue  that 
squeezes  out  from  the  joints,  as 
it  would  prevent  the  sliding  of 
the  strips  if  allowed  to  harden. 
The  whole  should  be  sand- 
papered smooth,  shellacked, 
then  sandpapered  again.  Be 
sure  that  cb  is  in  position  when 
you  fasten  de  to  a,  or  it  will 
not  fit ;  but  be  sure  to  with- 
draw it  soon,  or  it  will  be  glued 
by  the  excess  glue  that  squeezes 
out  from  the  joint. 

3.  Laying  off  graduations.  — 
Lay  off  the  graduations  with 
waterproof  India  ink.     Begin- 
ning at  the   bottom  of  Strip   C,    FIG.  91.  — DETAILS  OF  LEVELING 

lay  off  feet,   inches,   and   half  ROD- 

inches  up  to  5'.  On  the  bottom  of  the  second  strip  a  lay 
off  the  same  graduations,  but  begin  where  the  others 
left  off,  that  is,  at  5'.  Shellac  over  the  graduations. 
In  using  the  leveling  rod  the  height  of  the  target  is 
read  directly  from  the  scale  on  a.  If  the  height 
is  7',  the  bottom  of  strip  c  rests  on  the  7'  mark  of 
strip  a. 


*^y/ued  joints 


108  WOODWORKING 

4.  Making  the  target.  —  Make  the  target  round  and 
6"  in  diameter.  Plane  both  surfaces  smooth  before 
cutting  out  the  circle ;  then  lay  out  the  circle  and  chisel 
around,  beginning  with  the  grain  of  the  wood  and  chisel- 
ing towards  each  end.  Place  a  piece  of  coarse  sand- 
paper on  a  block  and  smooth  down  to  a  perfect  circle; 
then  finish  with  No.  i  sandpaper. 

Draw  two  diameters  at  right  angles  to  each  other, 
and  with  black  shellac  color  alternate  quarter  circles 
black;  then  shellac  all  over  with  white  shellac.  Sand- 
paper down  to  a  smooth  finish.  Bore  a  i"  hole  in  center 
of  target  so  that  you  can  see  the  graduations. 

Make  a  brass  stirrup  so  it  will  just  fit  over  the  leveling 
rod  and  have  two  flanges  about  J"  wide  through  which 

screws  can  be  driven  to 
hold  it  to  the  target.  (See 
Fig.  92.)  Drill  two  holes 
in  each  flange  large  enough 
to  fit  the  \"  screws.  With 
the  hammer,  dent  in  the 

Fto.  92.-Si,REUP  n.  LEVELING  ROD.    surface  frQm  the  ^^   fl 

little  at  a ;  this  will  make  it  bind  on  the  rod  and  cause 
it  to  stay  wherever  placed  without  holding.  Saw  oflF 
the  top  6"  of  the  part  adefg,  Fig.  91,  and  fasten  to  part 
be  with  two  screws. 

/ 
QUESTIONS 

1.  What  method  do  you  prefer  in  planing  up  thin  stock  ? 

2.  What  method  is  best  in  splitting  thin  stock  into  strips  ? 

3.  How  would  you  measure  heights  over  5  feet  ? 


LESSON  XX 
THREE   HORSE   EVENER 

With  this  form  of  an  evener  no  horse  can  pull  less 
than  his  share  of  the  load. 

STOCK 

I  pc.  hickory  or  white  oak      2"  X    6"  X  4'  5i" 
i  pc.  hickory  or  white  oak    ij"  X  4-J"  X  3'  i" 
3  pcs.  hickory  or  white  oak  ij"  X    3"  X  2'  6" 

TOOLS 

Rule  Saw  Brace  and  bit 

Try-square  Plane  Spokeshave 

Marking  gauge 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Laying  out  evener. 

2.  Laying  out  doubletree. 

3.  Laying  out  singletrees. 

4.  Sawing  and  boring. 

5.  Chamfering. 

6.  Ironing. 

i.  Laying  out  evener.  —  Lay  out  point  c  2"  from 
point  /,  Fig.  94.  Lay  out  point  d  2"  from  point  g 
at  the  other  end.  Square  across  both  ends  at  these 
points.  Lay  out  point  e  18%"  from  /  and  square 
across  one  surface.  3"  from  e  on  either  side  locate 

109 


no  WOODWORKING 

points  h  and  i  and  square  across  the  edge  at  these 
points.  Locate  the  holes  at  K  and  by  L  measuring 
in  from  each  end  2"  and  up  3"  from  the  lower  edge.  On 
line  squared  across  from  e  locate  hole  M  i"  from  lower 
edge.  Connect  points  d  and  i  with  a  line  on  each  sur- 
face; also  connect  points  c  and  h  with  similar  lines. 

2.  Laying  out  doubletree.  —  Lay  out  point  c  \\"  from 
point/,  Fig.  95.     Lay  out  point  d  \\"  from  point  g  at 
the  other  end.     Square  across  both  ends  at  these  points. 
Lay  out  point  e  i'  6J"  from  each  end  and  square  across 
one  surface.     From  e  lay  out  points  h  and  i  2\"  on  each 
side.     Connect  points  c  and  h  with  lines  on  both  sur- 
faces, also  points  d  and  i.     Locate  holes  at  K  and  L  by 
measuring  in  from  both  ends  2"  and  up  from  the  lower 
edge  2".     Locate  hole  at  M  \"  up  from  the  lower  edge 
on  line  squared  across  from  e. 

3.  Laying    out    singletrees.  —  Lay  out   c  \"  from/, 
Fig.  96,  and  d  i"  from  g,  and  square  across  the  ends 
at  these  points.     Lay  out  e  \'  3"  from  each  end  and 
square  across  one  surface.     2"  on  either  side  of  e  locate  h 
and  i.     Connect  c  and  h  with  lines  on  both  surfaces ; 
connect  also  d  and  i.     Locate  hole  M  by  measuring 
up  from  lower  edge  i"  on  line  squared  across  from  e. 
If  hooks  as  shdwn  in  Fig.  208,  page  233,  are  desired, 
then  locate  the  holes  shown  in  the  drawing.     If  hooks 
as  shown  in  Fig.  209,  page  234,  are  wanted,  then  the 
ends    of  the    singletrees  should  be   rounded  to  fit  the 
same,  or  if"  in  diameter. 

4.  Sawing  and  boring.  —  Bore  f"  holes  at   K  and  Z, 
and  i"  hole  at  M  (Fig.  94).     Bore  \"  holes  at  K  and  L 
and    f"   hole    at   M  (Fig.   95).     Bore   \"  hole    at  M 
(Fig.  96); 


-.9  -Ho 


" 


III 


112  WOODWORKING 

Rip  along  the  lines  ch  and  di  in  Figs.  94,  95,  96,  and 
plane  smooth. 

5.  Chamfering.  —  With  the    marking    gauge    set   at 
}"  gauge  all  surfaces,  edges,  and  ends  of  evener.     With 
the  gauge  set  at  \"  gauge  all  surfaces,  edges,  and  ends 
of  doubletree  and  singletrees.     With  the  block  plane 
chamfer  down  to  the  lines  across  the  grain  at  the  ends 
of  all  pieces. 

With  the  spokeshave  begin  to  chamfer  the  corners, 
beginning  at  points  h  and  i  in  all  cases ;  when  nearly 
down  to  the  lines,  finish  the  chamfering  with  the  plane. 

6.  Ironing.  -  -  The    ironing    consists    of   assembling 
the  various  parts  with  the  irons  described  under  the 
subject  of  Blacksmithing. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  advantages  of  this  type  of  evener  ? 

2.  Can  any  doubletree  be  used  on  the  shorter  end  ? 

3.  Is  there  any  advantage  in  tapering  the  members  on  the  edges 
near  the  horses  ? 


LESSON  XXI 

FARM  GATE 

STOCK 

6  boards  pine  i"  X  6"  X  12' 
3  boards  pine  i"  X  6"  X  5' 
I  board  pine  i"  X  6"  X  9' 
i  pc.  hard  wood  i"  X  3"  X  4'  6" 
i  pc.  hickory  i"  X  i"  X  3'  3" 
i  Ib.  lod.  nails 

1  pair  hinges 

2  doz.  screws  2",  No.  10,  F.  H.  B. 

TOOLS 

Steel  square  Hammer 

Saw  Screwdriver 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Sawing  boards  to  length. 

2.  Nailing  gate  together. 

3.  Cutting  bevel  on  brace. 

4.  Making  catch,  spring,  and  slot. 

5.  Hanging  on  hinges. 

i.  Sawing  boards  to  length.  -  -  The  gate  is  to  be  12' 
long;  so  measure  up  and  saw  off  six  boards  of  that 
length.  The  three  uprights  are  to  be  5'  long  and  the 
brace  is  to  be  9'  long.  The  brace  should  not  be  beveled 
until  after  the  gate  has  been  assembled. 


WOODWORKING 


2.   Nailing    gate    together.  --  Lay    five 
on  the  floor.     Lay  the 


of   the     12' 
sixth   board 


boards  6"  apart 
against  the  edge  of  the  fifth.  (See  A,  Fig.  97.)  Lay 
one  upright  across  each  end  ;  and  drive  one  nail 
through  the  uprights  into  the  end  of  each  board  prop- 
erly spaced,  with  the  end  of  the  boards  flush  with  the 
edge  of  the  upright.  An  easy  and  satisfactory  method 


a'-o' 


FIG.  97.  —  FARM  GATE. 

of  spacing  the  boards  is  to  take  a  block  that  has  been 
cut  from  one  of  the  boards  and  place  it  between  the 
last  board  nailed  and  the  next  one  to  be  nailed.  When 
you  have  put  one  nail  in  each  board,  then  square  up 
the  gate  with  the  steel  square  and  fasten  in  place  by 
driving  a  second  nail  in  each  board.  Four  feet  from 
one  end  square  a  line  across  the  top  and  bottom  board. 
This  line  locates  the  third  crosspiece,  which  should  be 
nailed  in  place. 

3.  Cutting  bevel  on  brace.  -  -  To  cut  the  bevel  on  the 
ends  of  the  brace,  lay  it  on  the  gate  so  that  the  ends 
are  flush  with  the  top  of  the  upright  at  the  end  and 
with  the  bottom  of  the  next  upright.  Place  the  steel 
square  so  that  its  edge  is  flush  with  the  edge  of  the  up- 


FARM   GATE 


.  —  SAGGING  OF  A  GATE  DUE  TO 
LACK  OF  BRACING. 


right,   line  across  the  bevel,  and  saw  along  this  line. 
Repeat  at  the  other  end. 

The  principle  of  this  brace  is  one  that  is  so  commonly 
used  on  the  farm,  that  it  will  be  described  at  length. 
The  entire  weight  of  the  gate  is  supported  from  one 
end.  This  causes  the  free 
end  to  sag,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  98.  The  sag  of  the 
gate  will  increase  the  dis- 
tance between  a  and  b  and 
decrease  the  distance  be- 
tween c  and  d.  When  the 
gate  is  held  level,  the  dis-  FlG- 
tance  ab  is  equal  to  the  dis- 
tance cd.  To  keep  the  gate  level,  some  means  of  keep- 
ing the  distances  equal  must  be  devised.  If  a  board 
were  nailed  on  between  points  a  and  b,  it  would  hold 
the  gate  level,  but  a  strong  steel  wire  would  do  just  as 
well,  and  perhaps  better.  This  proves  that  the  tend- 
ency to  sag  exerts  a  pull  force,  or,  as  it  is  called,  a 
tension.  Likewise  anything  that  will  keep  the  points 
c  and  d  from  coming  together  will  keep  the  gate  level. 
Evidently  a  wire  connecting  these  points  will  not  keep 
them  the  proper  distance  apart.  A  board  nailed  con- 
necting points  c  and  d  will  have  the  same  tendency  to 
keep  the  gate  level  as  would  a  wire  connecting  points 
a  and  b.  If  both  are  used,  a  double  effect  is  secured. 

Another  fact  to  remember  in  bracing  gates  is  that  the 
more  nearly  perpendicular  the  compression  or  tension 
brace  is,  the  stronger  it  is.  If  a  gate  were  divided  into 
three  parts  and  each  section  braced,  as  in  Fig.  99,  it 
would  be  stronger  than  if  it  had  only  one  brace,  because 


Il6  WOODWORKING 

each  brace  would  be  nearer  a  perpendicular;  but  the 

gate  would  also  be  heavier  and  require  more  material, 
which  would  be  disadvantageous. 
If  a  gate  were  made  longer  than 
twelve  feet,  it  would  be  advisable 
FIG.  99.  — BRACING  ALONG  to  have  two  such  braces  instead  of 

GAIE-  one. 

4.   Making  catch,  spring,  and  slot.  -  -  The  catch  should 

be  made  of  some  hard  wood  i"  X  3"  X  4'  6".     i"  from 

one  end  a  J"  hole  is  bored,   12"  from  the  same  end 

another  J"  hole  is  bored,  9"  from  the  other  end  another 

hole  of  the  same  size  is  bored.     Hard  wood  pegs  should 

be  fitted  in  these  holes.     The 

one  for  the  first  hole  needs  to 

be   about   3"   long,   while   the 

other  should  be  about  5"  long 

so  that  it  can  be  handled  easily 

in   pulling  back   the    catch  to 

open  the  gate  (Fig.  100).     The 

spring  should  be  made  of  hick- 

orY   3'  3"  l°ng  and   about   i" 

square. 

The  larger  end  of  the  spring 

is  CUt  On  a  bevel  SO  that  the  end    FlG-    100.— CATCH,    SPRING,    AND 
'ii          _«  !  t  ft  r  SLOT  or  GATE. 

will  project  about  2f"  from  the 

upright.  Bore  holes  through  the  larger  end  of  the 
spring  so  that  it  can  be  nailed  to  the  upright  and  hori- 
zontal boards.  When  the  catch  is  pulled  back  by  the 
peg,  the  spring  will  force  it  back  again  into  the  slot  in 
the  post.  The  end  of  the  catch  that  fits  in  the  slot 
should  be  rounded  so  that  it  will  slide  easily  up  the 
beveled  edges.  The  slot  can  be  cut  in  the  post,  if  the 


FARM  GATE  117 

post  is  large;  otherwise  one  can  be  made  from  a  block 
of  hard  wood,  as  shown  in  Fig.  100,  and  nailed  to  the 
post.  Lay  the  catch  where  it  belongs  on  the  gate  and 
nail  over  it  two  strips  in  line  with  the  two  uprights. 

5.  The  hinges  are  described  under  Blacksmithing. 
They  are  fastened  to  the  upright  of  the  gate  with  the 
heavy  wood  screws. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  meant  by  tension  and  compression? 

2.  What  kind  of  stress  does  the  brace  exert  ? 

3.  What  kind  of  stress  does  each  hinge  exert  ? 

4.  Why  are  there  two  boards  on  the  bottom  ? 


FARM    SHOP    WORK  —  9 


LESSON  XXII 

CORN  RACK 

STOCK 

2  pcs.  4"  X  6"  X  20'  i  carriage  bolt  f "  x  7" 

96  board  feet  pine  i"  X  12"  I  long  king  bolt 

22  linear  feet  2"  X  4"  2  stirrup  bolts 

i  pc.  hardwood  2"  X  6"  X  10"  2  bolts  f"  x  10" 

i  Ib.  6od.  spikes 
i  Ib.  icd.  nails 

TOOLS 

Steel  square  Hammer 

Saw  Brace  and  bit 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Laying  out  the  material. 

2.  Assembling  the  rack. 

i.  Laying  out  the  material.  --The  two  stringers  are 
laid  out  20'  long.  Lay  out  two  uprights  for  the  rear 
end  from  the  2"  x  4"  stock,  each  4'  long.  Lay  off  and 
saw  one  end  of  each  piece  at  an  angle  of  60  degrees. 
Lay  out  two  uprights  for  the  forward  end  4'  3"  long, 
and  saw  one  end  of  each  piece  at  an  angle  of  60  degrees. 
Lay  out  two  braces  for  the  ends  2'  6"  long  and  saw 
the  two  ends  of  each  at  an  angle  of  60  degrees.  Lay 
out  two  pieces  2"  X  4"  x  2'  9"  and  one  piece  2"  X  4"  X 
3'  10".  The  flooring  is  all  cut  6'  long. 

1x8 


CORN   RACK 


119 


2.  Assembling  the  rack.  —  In  assembling  the  corn 
rack,  bolt  the  two  front  ends  of  the  stringers  together 
with  two  f  "  bolts.  Spread  the  other  two  ends  3'  apart, 
inside  measurements,  and  hold  in  place  by  tacking  a 
piece  of  the  flooring  across  the  ends.  The  stringers  will 
be  curved  slightly  because  of  this  springing  apart  of  the 
ends.  Straighten  them  out  by  tacking  several  pieces 


\\ 


/*•  or 

FIG.  101.  —  WORKING  DRAWINGS  OF  CORN  RACK. 

of  flooring  on  the  under  side  of  the  stringers.  At  point 
<z,  4'  from  the  rear  end,  spike  the  two  uprights  to  the 
stringers.  On  top  of  these  two  uprights,  nail  a  piece 
2"  X  4"  X  6'  so  that  it  projects  equal  distances  be- 
yond the  uprights.  Nail  in  place  the  two  braces  as 
shown  in  the  drawing,  spiking  the  lower  ends  to  the 
upper  edge  of  the  stringers,  and  the  upper  ends  to  the 
uprights.  At  point  b,  4'  3"  from  the  front  end,  spike 
a  piece  2"  X  4"  X  2'  $"  to  the  under  side  of  the 
stringers  with  an  equal  length  extending  beyond  each 


120  WOODWORKING 

stringer.  To  the  ends  of  this  piece  nail  the  lower  ends 
of  the  forward  uprights.  To  the  upper  ends  of  the 
uprights  nail  a  piece  2"  X  4"  X  6'.  At  point  c  spike 
a  piece  2"  X  4"  X  2'  9"  across  the  stringers  and  on  top 
of  this,  spike  another  similar  piece  in  such  a  position 
that  they  will  hold  the  front  uprights  in  the  same  posi- 
tion as  those  in  the  rear;  that  is,  at  an  angle  of  60  de- 
grees with  the  stringers.  Spike  the  uprights  to  these 
pieces  by  toenailing  them  from  both  sides.  To  the 
middle  of  the  double  crosspiece  c  fasten  the  bar  e  with 
a  carriage  bolt  f"  X  7". 

The  double  crosspiece  c  is  for  the  purposes  of  brac- 
ing the  uprights,  and  to  afford  a  fastening  for  one  end 
of  the  bar  e.  This  bar  takes  the  place  of  the  reach 
of  the  wagon  and  passes  over  the  front  hound  and  be- 
tween the  sand  board  and  axle,  being  held  in  that  posi- 
tion by  the  king  bolt  which  passes  through  the  sand 
board,  reach,  axle,  and  stringers  successively.  The 
wheels  and  hounds  of  some  wagons  are  larger  than 
those  on  others,  and  some  truck  wagons  have  no 
hounds ;  therefore  it  will  be  necessary  to  vary  the 
distance  between  the  ends  of  the  stringers  and  the 
uprights  according  to  the  wagon  to  be  fitted. 

Across  the  edges  of  both  sets  of  uprights  at  d,  d,  d, 
d,  d,  d,  nail  strips  i"  X  4"  X  6'.  Lay  the  flooring  and 
remove  the  strips  tacked  to  the  under  side  of  the 
stringers.  To  the  under  side  of  the  front  end  of  the 
stringers  nail  a  piece  of  hardwood  2"  X  6"  X  10",  and 
then  through  the  middle  of  the  piece  and  between  the 
stringers  bore  a  i"  hole  for  the  king  bolt.  6"  from  the 
other  ends  of  the  stringers  bore  a  f "  hole  for  the  stirrup 
bolts,  which  are  to  hook  over  the  rear  axle. 


CORN  RACK  121 

To  fit  this  rack  in  place  first  remove  the  reach  and 
the  front  bolster,  then  fasten  the  rear  end  of  the 
stringers  under  the  rear  axle  of  the  wagon  with  the 
hind  hound  resting  on  the  stringers,  next  slip  the  front 
hound  between  the  stringers  and  the  bar  (e),  the  latter 
passing  into  the  hole  intended  for  the  reach.  The  rear 
ends  of  the  stringers  are  held  to  the  axle  by  two 
stirrup  bolts  and  the  front  ends  to  the  front  axle  by  a 
long  king  bolt.  These  bolts  are  described  under  Black- 
smithing. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  are  the  stringers  not  laid  parallel  ? 

2.  How  will  you  determine  where  to  place  the  racks  at  each  end  ? 

3.  Why  is  the  rack  hung  so  low  ? 


LESSON  XXIII 

CATTLE   RACK 

STOCK 


2  pcs.  pine  or  hemlock 
2  pcs.  pine  or  hemlock 

2  pcs.  pine  or  hemlock 

3  pcs.  pine  or  hemlock 
3  pcs.  pine  or  hemlock 

1 8  pcs.  hardwood 
2  pcs.  hardwood 
2  pcs.  hardwood 


X  12'         5  Ib.  I2d.  wire  nails 


//  X 

"  X  6"  x  10'        2  Ib.  6od.  wire  nails 
"  X  6"  X  2'  6" 


"  X  6"  x  3' 
"  x  6"  X  36}". 
"X3"X3'3" 
//X3//X  2' 9" 


3  pcs.  pine  2"  x  4    X  3  3 
2  pcs.  pine  2"  x  4"  X  5' 
2  pcs.  pine  2"  X  6"  X  3' 
2  pcs.  pine  2"  X  4"  X  4'  6" 
I  pc.  pine  2"  X  4"  X  6'  9" 

TOOLS 

Steel  square  Saw 

Hammer  Brace  and  bit 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Laying  out  and  sawing  boards. 

2.  Ripping  strips. 

3.  Nailing  strips  to  boards. 

4.  Laying  out  and  sawing  timbers  for  stanchion. 

5.  Assembling  stanchion. 

6.  Making  iron  hooks. 

122 


-s-.c 


123 


124  WOODWORKING 

1.  Laying  out  and  sawing  boards.  —  Measure  off  and 
saw  pine  boards  to  the  following  dimensions  : 

2  boards  i"  X  6"  X  12' 
2  boards  i"  X  6"  X  10' 
2  boards  i"  x6"  x  2'  6" 

These  boards  are  for  the  sides  of  the  rack.  For  the  end 
gate  measure  off  three  boards  i"  X  6"  X  36  J",  also  three 
pieces  2"  x  4"  X  3'  3",  and  saw. 

2.  Ripping  strips.  —  The  strips  are  made  of  hardwood, 
oak  or  elm  preferred.     Three  12-ft.  boards  6"  wide  and 
i"  thick  will  do  for  all  the  strips.     Rip  out  the  follow- 
ing strips  : 

18  strips  3'  3"  long  and  3"  wide 
2  strips  2'  9"  long  and  3"  wide 
2  strips  i'  3"  long  and  2"  wide 

3.  Nailing  strips  to  boards.  —  Locate  the  strips  on  the 
boards  at  the  distances  shown  in  the  working  drawing, 
Fig.  102.     Stagger  the  nails  so  as  to  not  split  the  hard- 
wood strips.     Drive  the  nails  clear  through  and  clinch 
on  the  inside.     At  e  one  short  strip  is  nailed  on  the  out- 
side of  each  side.     At  /  one  strip  is  nailed  on  the  inside 
of  each  side.     At  b  one  strip  is  nailed  on  the  outside  of 
each  rack.     The  short  strip  e  rests  on  the  top  edge  of 
wagon  box  to  hold  front  end  gate  of  box. 

The  short  board  g  is  placed  on  top  of  the  bottom  board 
to  support  the  wagon  seat.  The  strip  b  is  single  and  on 
the  outside  because  the  stanchion  is  usually  fastened  at 
this  place.  The  end  gate  is  made  according  to  Fig.  103, 
and  is  fastened  in  place  with  end-gate  rods. 


CATTLE   RACK 


125 


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FIG.  103.  —  WORKING  DRAWING  OF  END  GATE  OF  CATTLE  RACK. 

(The  holes  for  the  lower  end-gate  rod  are  not  shown.     They  should  be  bored  at  the 
proper  height  to  admit  the  end-gate  rod  of  the  wagon  box.) 

4.  Laying  out  and  sawing  timbers  for  stanchion.  — 
A   stanchion  is  an  arrangement  of  bars   for  fastening 
cattle  in  a  stall  by  locking  timbers  around  their  necks 
so  they  cannot  get  away,  and  yet  giving  them  consid- 
erable freedom  of  motion.     In  sawing  the  braces  a,  a, 
you  can  save  considerable  lumber  by  laying  them  out 
in   one   piece   instead   of  using  two  pieces  each. 4'  6" 
long.       In  this  way  you  save  the  difference  between 
6'  9"  and  9'.     The  rest  of  the  timbers  are  laid  out  as 
indicated.     (See  Fig.  102.) 

5.  In  assembling  the   stanchion,   first  nail  the  two 
outside  pieces  to  the  top  and  bottom  crosspieces.     The 
two  braces  a,  a,  are  spiked  to  the  bottom  planks  and  to 
the  two  uprights.     The  two  movable  timbers  b,  b,  are 
fastened  by  spiking  with  one  spike  in  the  lower  end  of 


126  WOODWORKING 

each.  The  tops  of  these  two  members  are  held  in  place 
by  a  wooden  peg  placed  in  the  holes  bored  through  the 
tops.  Bore  the  holes  nearer  the  outside  edges  so  as  to 
make  them  stronger. 

6.  Making  iron  hooks.  -  -  The  stanchion  is  fastened 
to  the  bottom  of  the  box  and  to  the  sides  by  iron  hooks, 
which  are  described  under  the  subject  of  Blacksmith- 
ing. 

The  stanchion  can  be  fastened  any  place  along  the 
box  according  to  the  size  of  the  animal.  If  it  happens 
to  be  very  unruly,  its  head  can  be  tied  down  with  a 
rope  passed  through  a  hole  bored  in  the  bottom  of  the 
stanchion,  and  then  tied. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  hardwood  used  for  the  strips  instead  of  pine  ? 

2.  Why  is  a  short  strip  used  at  e  ? 

3.  Why  is  a  single  strip  used  at  b  instead  of  a  double  one  ? 

4.  Why  do  you  lay  out  the  braces  ay  a,  as  shown,  from  one  piece 
instead  of  from  two  pieces  ? 

5.  Why  should  you  nail  on  the  braces  a,  a,  before  the  movable 
pieces  ? 

6.  Why  do  you  bore  the  holes  nearer  the  outside  edges  of  the 
stanchions  ? 


LESSON  XXIV 

HOG  COT 

STOCK 

150  linear  feet  white  pine  or  hemlock  2"  X  4" 

20  linear  feet  white  pine  or  hemlock  2"  x  6" 

21  linear  feet  white  pine  or  hemlock  2"  X  8" 
400  board  feet  sheathing 

5  Ib.  2od.  nails 

2  Ib.  8d.  nails 

I  Ib.  lod.  nails 

i  doz.  screws  ij",  No.  10,  F.  H.  B. 

TOOLS 

Steel  square         Try-square         Hammer  Screwdriver 

Bevel  Saw  Block  plane 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Laying  out  and  sawing  floor  joists. 

2.  Laying  out  and  sawing  side  pieces. 

3.  Spiking  side  pieces  to  floor  joists. 

4.  Making  the  runners. 

5.  Laying  out  and  sawing  the  rafters. 

6.  Nailing  rafters  in  place. 

7.  Cutting  and  nailing  purlins  in  place. 

8.  Laying  out  and  nailing  headers  and  trimmers. 

9.  Nailing  on  flooring  and  roofing. 
10.  Making  the  door. 

127 


128 


HOG  COT 


129 


1.  Laying  out  and  sawing  floor  joists.  —  Lay  out  and 
saw  six  pieces  2"  X  4"  X  7'  8"  for  the  floor  joists.     Saw 
the  ends  square. 

2.  Laying  out  and  sawing  the  side  pieces.  —  Lay  out 
two  pieces  2"  X  8"  X  10'  4"  for  the  side  pieces.     Notch 
each  end  4"  down  from  the  top  and  6"  in  from  each 
end,  as  shown  in  Fig.  104. 

3.  Spiking  the  side  pieces  to  the  floor  joists.  —  As 
there   are  six  joists   and  the   cot   is   9'  4"   long,  each 
space  between  the  joists  is  20" .     This  gives  a  distance 
of  22"  between  the  middle  lines  of  the  joists.     Locate 
these  spaces  and  spike  through  the  side  pieces  into  the 
ends  of  the  floor  joists  with  2od.  spikes. 

Locate  the  lower  edges  of  the  joists  flush  with  the 
lower  edges  of  the  side  pieces. 

4.  Making  the  runners.  -  -  The  runners  are  made  of 
two  pieces  of  2"  X  6"  X  10'  4".     The  ends  are  rounded 
off  by  drawing  an  arc  of  a 

circle  2"  in  radius,  holding    )  G 

the  two  planks  as  shown  in  . 

FIG.  105. — LAYING  OUT  ENDS  or  RUN- 

Fig.  105,  placing  the  point  NERS. 

of  the  compass  at  a.  Repeat  at  the  other  end. 
Chisel  down  just  outside  the  line,  and  finish  with  the 
block  plane.  Turn  the  floor  upside  down  and  spike 
the  runners  to  the  floor  joists,  locating  them  about  6" 
from  each  side  piece. 

5.  Laying  out  and  sawing  the  rafters.  -  -  The  rafters 
slope  at  an  angle  of  60  degrees  with  the  horizontal. 
The   lower  ends   fit  over  the  edge  of  the  side  pieces, 
and  the  ridgepole  fits  into  the  top.     Figure  106  shows 
how  the  two  ends  of  each  rafter  are  cut.     Lay  out  and 
saw. 


130 


WOODWORKING 


(30°  Working  drawing  of  rafter  cuts. 


60° 


/          I  \ 

Ends  of  each  header. 
FIG.  106.  —  RAFTER  AND  HEADER. 


6.  Nailing  rafters  in  place. 
—  Spike  the  rafters  to  the  side 

pieces.  Then  place  the  ridge- 
pole in  place  and  spike  from 
both  sides. 

7.  Cutting  and  nailing  pur- 

lins in  place.  —  A  purlin 
is  a  timber  placed  hori- / 
zontally  to  support  raft- 
ers.    In  the  hog  cot  it 
supports  roof  boards  instead 
of  rafters,  and  is  spiked  to  the 
rafters.     The  drawing  shows 
where  to  locate  the  purlins. 

8.  Laying  out  and  nailing  headers  and  trimmers.  — 
The  ends  of  the  headers  are  to  be  cut  at  an  angle  of  60 
degrees,  as  shown  in  Fig.  106,  so  as  to  fit  the  rafters. 
There    is    one     for 

each  end  of  the  cot.      -s ; z s 5 —  -ITTT 

The  two    trimmers —  -I  -L- 

are    placed    at   one 
end  for  the  door. 

9.  Nailing     on 
flooring    and    roof- 
ing. -  -  The  flooring 
is  nailed  across  the 
floor    joists.      The 
roofing    runs    from 
the  ridge   down  to 
the  side  pieces,  be- 
ing   nailed    to    the 
ridge,    purlin,    and 


HO- 


<M 


FIG.  107. 


WORKING  DRAWING  OF  DOOR  OF 
HOG  COT. 


HOG  COT  131 

side  pieces  with  8d.  nails.  The  roof  is  made  water- 
tight by  battens,  which  are  2"  strips  nailed  over  the 
cracks  between  the  roof  boards. 


FIG.  108.  —  FRAMEWORK  OF  HOG  Cox. 

Saw  the  battens  from  the  same  lumber  used  for  the 
roof.  Nail  the  sheathing  on  the  two  ends,  leaving  an 
opening  3'  x  2'  at  one  end  for  the  door. 

10.  Making  the  door.  -  -  The  door  opening  is  3'  high 
and  2'  wide,  but  the  door  is  to  be  i"  shorter  and  2" 
narrower  than  the  opening,  so  that  it  will  swing  in  and 
out  easily  and  allow  the  entry  of  air. 

Saw  the  boards  3'  long  and  fasten  them  together 
with  cleats  nailed  and  clinched  about  2"  from  each  end. 


132  WOODWORKING 

The  door  is  hung  by  hinges  at  the  top,  so  that  the  hog 
can  go  either  in  or  out  by  simply  pushing  against  the 
door.  The  making  of  the  hinges  is  described  under 
Blacksmithing. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  If  the  ends  of  the  floor  joists  are  not  sawed  square,  what  will 
be  the  result  ? 

2.  In  chiseling  the  ends  of  the  runners,  why  do  you  begin  at 
the  side  and  chisel  towards  the  end,  instead  of  the  reverse  ? 

3.  How  will  you  fit  the  roof  boards  so  as  to  shed  water  at  the 
ridge  ? 

4.  Of  what  special  use  is  the  lower  purlin  ? 

5.  Why  is  the. door  made  smaller  than  the  opening? 

6.  Why  is  the  door  hung  from  the  top  rather  than  from  the  side  ? 


LESSON  XXV 

WAGON   BOX 

STOCK 

35  board  feet  matched  oak  boards  4"  wide  and  J"  thick 
14  linear  feet  oak  strips  2"  wide  and  f  "  thick 

6  linear  feet  oak  strips  4"  wide  and  f  "  thick 
14  linear  feet  oak  strips  2"  wide  and  2"  thick 
28  linear  feet  whitewood  14"  wide  and  I"  thick 
1 8  bolts  2\"  long,  f"  diameter,  and  washers  (carriage) 
16  bolts  2\"  long,  f"  diameter,  and  washers  (carriage) 

9  doz.  screws  2",  No.  10,  F.  H.  B. 

TOOLS 

Steel  square  Saw  Brace  and  bit 

Try-square  Plane  Wrench 

Rule  Screwdriver  Countersink 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Laying  out  and  sawing  crosspieces. 

2.  Laying  out  and  sawing  flooring  and  fastening  to  cross- 

pieces. 

3.  Boring  holes  in  crosspieces. 

4.'  Laying  out,  planing,  and  sawing  side  boards  and  end  gates. 

5.  Laying  out  cleats,   boring  holes,   and    fastening  to   side 

boards  and  end  gates. 

6.  Fastening  side  boards  to  flooring. 

7.  Fitting  end-gate  rods  in  place. 

8.  Fastening  foot  rest  in  place. 

FARM    SHOP   WORK — IO  133 


134 


WOODWORKING 


i.  Laying  out  and  sawing  crosspieces. -- There  are 
four  pieces  under  the  floor  of  the  wagon  box.  Each  of 
the  two  end  pieces  is  2"  X  2"  X  3'  6",  and  the  two 
middle  crosspieces  are  2"  X  2"  X  4'. 


FIG.  109.  —  WORKING  DRAWINGS  OF  WAGON  Box. 

Unless  the  crosspieces  come  in  the  rough,  it  will  be 
unnecessary  to  do  any  planing. 

2.  Laying  out  flooring. — The  flooring  consists  of  4" 
tongued  and  grooved  oak  boards  f  "  thick,  and  should 
be  sawed  9'  3"  long.  When  the  boards  have  been  sawed 
the  proper  length,  they  can  be  laid.  Mark  a  center 
line  on  each  crosspiece  and  2"  from  this  on  one  side 
square  a  line  across  each  crosspiece.  Lay  the  cross- 
pieces  the  proper  distance  apart,  as  shown  in  the  draw- 
ing. There  will  be  one  crosspiece  at  each  end,  and  one 


WAGON   BOX  135 

3'  7^"  from  each  end.  This  places  the  two  middle  cross- 
pieces  i'  8"  apart,  inside  measurements.  Lay  the  edge 
of  the  middle  board  against  the  marks  on  the  cross- 
pieces  and  fasten  in  place  with  one  screw  near  its  edge, 
having  first  bored  and  countersunk  the  holes. 

When  this  has  been  done  on  all  crosspieces,  with  the 
steel  square,  square  up  all  crosspieces  and  put  in  the 
second  screw  in  each  crosspiece,  staggering  the  screws, 
and  placing  them  about  \"  from  the  edges.  The 
screw  holes  should  be  countersunk  deep  enough  so  that 
the  screw  heads  sink  about  yg-"  below  the  surface  of 
the  flooring. 

Place  the  second  board  in  place  and  drive  it  up 
tight,  using  a  waste  piece  of  flooring  to  take  the  ham- 
mer blows  and  protect  the  edge  of  the  tongue  or  groove. 
It  may  be  necessary  to  use  clamps  to  hold  the  flooring 
in  place  while  it  is  being  fastened  to  the  crosspiece. 

Continue  this  process  until  you  come  to  the  last  board, 
which  will  extend  out  too  far ;  draw  it  up  in  place,  but 
do  not  fasten  it. 

Then  proceed  on  the  other  side  until  you  come  to  the 
last  board.  Measure  from  the  center  of  the  middle 
board  i' 7"  to  each  edge  at  each  end,  and  mark  on  the 
two  outer  boards.  By  means  of  a  straightedge  draw 
lines  from  end  to  end  of  the  outer  boards,  showing  where 
they  are  to  be  sawed  and  planed.  When  finished, 
fasten  in  place  to  the  crosspieces. 

3.  Boring  holes  in  crosspieces.  -  -  The  side  boards 
are  fastened  to  the  flooring  by  screws  and  iron  strips. 
The  iron  strips  have  a  round  tang  or  bolt-like  end 
threaded  which  passes  through  the  crosspieces  and  is 
fastened  by  nuts  and  washers  on  the  under  side.  The 


I36 


WOODWORKING 


Hlh 


holes  are  f  "  and  are  bored  close  to  the  edge  of  the  outer 
board  of  the  floor.  The  foot  boards  are  placed  on  the 
ends  of  the  two  middle  crosspieces.  They  are  4" 
wide  and  are  tacked  in  place  with 
their  outer  edges  flush  with  the 
ends  of  the  crosspieces.  The 
irons  that  go  down  through  these 
holes  are  fastened  by  two  nuts 
and  washers,  one  above  the  foot 
board  and  one  below  the  cross- 
piece,  as  shown  in  Fig.  no. 


round 


MCQ 


FIG.  no.  —  IRONS  OF  FOOT  BOARD. 

4.  The  side  boards  and  end  gates  are  made  of  white- 
wood  and  should  be  surfaced  on  both  sides.     The  ends 
and  edges  should  be  planed  square  and  straight. 

5.  The  cleats  are  of  oak  and  are  fastened  to  the  side 
boards  and  end  gates  by  f"  carriage  bolts,  nuts,  and 
washers. 

The  cleats  are  14"  long  and  2"  wide  by  f  "  thick.  At 
the  ends  they  are  held  in  place  by  carriage  clamps 
while  the  holes  are  being  bored  and  the  bolts  fastened 
in  place.  The  bolts  pass  through  the  iron  strips  on  the 
outside  of  the  side  boards.  Other  cleats  are  fastened 
i"  from  the  end  cleats  to  hold  the  end  gates  in  place. 
Square  a  line  across  the  side  boards  i"  from  the  inner 
edge  of  the  end  cleats  and  lay  these  cleats  along  this 
line.  Hold  with  clamps  and  bore  the  holes  for  the  bolts. 


WAGON   BOX 


137 


These  bolts  do  not  pass  through  iron  strips.  3"  from 
the  ends  of  the  end  gates,  square  lines  across  and  fasten 
cleats  as  before. 

6.  Fastening  side  boards  to  flooring.  —  After  fasten- 
ing all  irons  in  place,  turn  the  box  over  -^ 
and  at  intervals  of  6"  drive  2"  screws 

down   through    the   flooring   into    the 

edges  of  the  side 

boards. 

7.  Fitting  end- 
gate    rods    in 
place.  —  Fit  the 
end   gates   in 
place    and    bore 
f "  holes  for  the 
end-gate     rods 
which    are    used 
to  hold  the  side 

boards  together.     A  special  form  of     r tn, 
washer  is  made  which  can  be  fastened  FlG  IIX._FOOT  REST  OF 
permanently  to  the  ,side  boards  with  WAGON  BOX. 

small  screws  ;  one  of  them  is  thicker  and  is  threaded  to 
fit  the  end  of  the  end-gate  rod  which  screws  into  it. 

8.  Fastening  the  foot  rest  in  place.  -  -  The  iron  braces 
for  the  foot  rest  can  now  be  fastened  in  place  with  two 
of  the  bolts  used  on  the  cleats  of  the  front  end  gate,  and 
the  4"  strip  of  oak  bolted  to  these  braces. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  the  flooring  laid  from  the  center  rather  than  from  one 
side? 

2.  Of  what  use  are  the  iron  strips  on  the  side  boards? 

3.  Why  should  the  screws  in  the  flooring  be  countersunk  ? 


LESSON  XXVI 


WORK   BENCH 

STOCK 

Bench  top  ...     2  pcs.  maple  or  hard  pine  2"  X  12"  x  6' 

Legs 4  pcs.  white  pine 

Crosspieces     .     .     2  pcs.  white  pine 
Braces  ....     4  pcs.  white  pine 
Long  brace     .     .     i  pc.  white  pine 
Apron    ....     i  pc.  white  pine 
Vise.  —  Jaw  .     .     I  pc.  maple 

Braces    .     2  pcs.  white  pine 
Crosspiece  2  pcs.  white  pine 

i  carpenter's  bench  screw  if" 

8  nails  2od. 
10  nails  lod. 
30  nails  8d. 

8  screws  3",  No.  14,  F.  H.  B. 

4  screws  i",  No.  8,  F.  H.  B. 


2"  x  4"  x  32" 

2"X4"X23" 
l"X  2"X  2'  6" 

T"  v  i"  v   r' 
1      X  3      X  5 

i"X  8"x  6' 

2"  x  6"  x  24" 
i."  x  2"  x  2'  6" 

l"X2"x  IS" 


TOOLS 

Try-square 

Saw 

Screwdriver 

Rule 

Plane 

Chisel 

Bevel  square 

Brace  and  bit 

Hammer 

Clamps 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Laying  out  length  of  legs  and  crosspieces. 

2.  Sawing  to  length. 

3.  Laying  out  the  mitered  ends  of  braces. 

4.  Sawing  the  mitered  ends. 

5.  Laying  out  the  halved  joints. 

138 


WORK  BENCH  139 

6.  Cutting  the  halved  joints. 

7.  Assembling  the  bench. 

8.  Laying  out  screw  hole  and  mortises  of  vise. 

9.  Boring  the  screw  hole. 

10.  Cutting  the  mortises  of  the  vise. 

11.  Laying  out  braces  and  crosspieces. 

12.  Sawing  the  miters. 

13.  Assembling  vise. 

14.  Fitting  vise  to  bench. 

15.  Inserting  bench  stop. 

i.  Laying  out  length  of  legs  and  crosspieces.  -  -  The 

height  of  the  bench  is  36" ;  and  as  the  top  planks  are 
2"  thick,  and  the  crosspieces  on  top  of  the  legs  are  2" 
thick,  the  legs  are  32"  long. 


FIG.  112.  —  WORKING  DRAWING  OF  WORK  BENCH. 

Square  across  the  ends  of  the  legs.  Do  the  same 
with  the  two  crosspieces,  which  should  be  23"  long,  or 
i"  shorter  than  the  bench  is  wide. 

2.  Sawing  to  length.  —  As  there  is  no  need  of  planing 
the  stock  that  goes  into  the  legs  and  crosspieces,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  take  pains  in  sawing  the  ends  square. 


140 


WOODWORKING 


3.  Laying  out  the  mitered  ends  of  braces.  —  The 
braces  between  the  legs  are  laid  out  at  right  angles  to 
each  other,  and  so  the  ends  will  fit  on  to  the  legs  at  an 
angle  of  45  degrees.  Set  the  bevel  at  45  degrees  by 
placing  the  beam  against  the  edge  of  the  carpenter's 

square,  and  set  the  blade  at 
equal  distances  on  the  tongue 
and  blade.  Be  sure  that  the 
four  braces  are  the  same  length. 
Square  down  from  the  miter 
lines  across  the  edges. 

4.  Sawing  the  mitered  ends. 
-  It  is  more  difficult  to  saw 

down  a  miter  than  square 
across,  so  take  particular  pains 
to  follow  the  lines. 

5.  Laying    out    the    halved 
joints.  —  Each  pair  of  braces 

should  be  halved  together  at  the  middle.  The  halved 
joint  should  be  marked  out  at  right  angles  with  the  edges 
and  lined  down  across  the  edges ;  then  gauged  between 
these  lines  halfway  from  surface  to  surface. 

6.  Cutting  the  halved  joints.  —  Saw  down  inside  the 
lines,  holding  the  saw  so  that  the  teeth  on  one  side  just 
split  the  line.     Saw  to  the  gauged  lines.     Chisel  out  the 
block  as  described  in  Lesson  II. 

7.  Assembling  the  bench.  —  In  assembling  the  bench 
nail  the  crosspieces  on  to  the  top  of  the  legs  with  2od. 
spikes.     In  nailing,  be  sure  to  stagger  the  nails,  which 
means  that  they  should  not  be  placed  parallel  to  the 
outer  edges.     Fig.  114  shows  the  correct  and  incorrect 
method.      If  the   tops    of  the  legs    have    been  sawed 


FIG.  113.  —  END  VIEW  OF  WORK 
BENCH. 


WORK   BENCH 


141 


correct  incorrect 

FIG.   114.  —  CORRECT  AND  INCOR- 
RECT METHOD  OF  PLACING  THE 

NAILS. 


square,  the  crosspieces,  when  nailed  in  place,  will  make 

right  angles  with  the  legs,  and  the  edge  B  will  be  flush 

with  the  edge  C.     The  second 

step  is  to  nail  the   braces  in 

place.     The  braces  are  fitted 

together  by  the  halved  joint 

and  fastened  with  two  screws  ; 

they  are  then  placed  inside  the 

legs    and  the  ends    nailed    in 

place.      The   next   step    is    to 

fasten  the  legs  on  to  the  top 

of  the  bench.     Place  the  planks  on  the  floor  with  the 

better  side  down  ;   hold  them  together  with  two  long 

clamps,  one  at  each  end.     6"  from  each  end  place  the 

legs  upside  down,  as 
in  Fig.  115.  The 
screw  holes  are  then 
located  and  bored. 
Be  sure  to  stagger 
the  screws. 

The    vise    should 


FIG.  us.-  FASTENING  LEGS  TO  BENCH  TOP. 


e      pjaned      smQOth 

and  squared  up  according  to  the  directions  given  in 
Lesson  I. 

8.  Laying  out  the  screw  hole  and  mortises  of  vise.  - 
Place  the  better  end  at  the  top  of  the  vise.  6"  down 
from  the  top  of  the  vise  square  a  line  across  the  surface, 
and  8"  from  the  top  square  another  line  across.  From 
the  points  where  these  lines  meet  the  edges,  square 
across  the  edges.  As  the  crosspieces  are  to  be  let  into 
these  mortises,  they  should  be  gauged  to  a  depth  equal 
to  the  thickness  of  the  crosspieces. 


142  WOODWORKING 

At  the  lower  end  of  the  jaw  line,  lay  off  an  angle  of 
45  degrees  from  the  corner  A,  Fig.  116,  using  the  bevel. 

With  the  bevel  still  in  place, 
measure  perpendicularly  2" 
and  draw  another  45-degree 
line  through  this  point  par- 
allel to  the  first.  Square 

FIG.  116.- MORTISE  CUT  AT  LOWER    acr°SS    the    surface    from    the 

END  OF  VISE.  points  where  these  two  lines 

meet  the  corner,  and  draw  similar  lines  on  the  other  edge. 

As  the  braces  that  are  to  be  let  into  these  mortises 
are  the  same  thickness  as  the  crosspieces,  these  mortises 
should  be  gauged  to  the  same  depth  as  the  others.  The 
screw  hole  is  laid  out  in  the  middle  of  the  width  of  the 
jaw  with  the  center  of  the  hole  7"  below  the  upper  end. 

9.  Boring  the  screw  hole.  —  The  screw  is  if"  in  diam- 
eter and  has  a  cast  iron  washer  near  the  handle.  This 
washer  is  to  be  let  into  the  wood  until  the  surface  is 
flush  with  the  surface  of  the  jaw,  so  it  will  be  necessary 
to  bore  a  hole  the  size  of  the  washer,  and  to  a  depth 
equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  washer  before  boring  the 
hole  for  the  screw.  If  the  small  hole  were  bored  first, 
there  would  be  no 
wood  to  hold  the 
screw  and  guide 
the  bit.  (See  Fig. 
117.)  Because  of 

'  .  FIG.  117. — HOLE  FOR  BENCH  SCREW. 

the    spherical    pro- 
jection  back  of  the  washer,   it  will   be   necessary  to 
gouge  out  a  recess  deep  enough  to  let  the  washer  down 
flush.     In  boring  these  large  holes,  use  an  expansion 
bit.      When  the  cutter   has    been    set   at  the  proper 


WORK  BENCH  143 

distance,  be  sure  that  the  set  screw  is  tight,  or  the  spur 
of  the  cutter  will  draw  it  out  farther  and  farther,  in- 
creasing the  diameter  of  the  hole  as  you  go  through. 

When  the  washer  is  fitted  to  place,  mark  the  screw 
holes  and  bore  with  a  gimlet  bit  of  the  proper  size. 

10.  Cutting  the  mortises  of  the  vise.  —  In  cutting  the 
mortises  follow  the  directions  given  in  the  first  part  of 
the  lesson. 

11.  Laying    out  braces    and    crosspieces.  —  Lay  off 
2'  7"  for  the  two  braces  and  miter  the  ends  in  the  same 
way  as  the  miters  of  the  cross  braces  of  the  legs  were 
laid  out,  except  that  the  45-degree  angle  in  these  braces 
should  be  on  the  same  edge  of  the  piece  rather  than 
on  the  opposite   edges.     For  the   crosspieces,  lay  out 
1 8"  in  length  and  miter  one  end  only. 

12.  Sawing  the  miters.  --  Follow  the  directions  given 
for  sawing  the  miters  of  the  cross  braces  of  the  legs. 

13.  Assembling  the  vise.  —  Fasten  the  braces  in  place 
on  the  vise  and  then  the  crosspieces.    Then  fasten  the 
crosspieces  to  the  braces.     In  order  to  fit  the  vise  to  the 
bench,  it  will  be  necessary  to  bore  a  hole  through  the 
leg  at  a  height  equal  to  the  distance  from  the  top  of 
the  vise  jaw  to  the  center  of  the  screw.     On  the  inner 
side  of  this  leg  over  the  hole  fasten  the  nut  that  comes 
with  the  screw. 

Two  slots  must  be  cut  in  the  apron  of  the  bench  to 
accommodate  the  crosspieces.  Measure  6"  down  from 
the  top  of  the  bench  and  locate  one  slot  on  each  side  of 
the  leg.  The  slots  are  i"  wide  and  are  cut  up  from  the 
bottom  edge  of  the  apron  a  distance  of  4". 

14.  Fitting  vise    to  bench.  -  -  The  vise  can  now  be 
placed  where  it  belongs  in  the  bench. 


144 


WOODWORKING 


15.  Inserting  bench  stop. — A  bench  stop  is  an  arrange- 
ment of  metal  or  wood  at  the  front. of  the  bench,  against 
which  boards  are  placed  for  surfacing.  In  this  case  the 
stop  is  of  wood,  squared  and  about  4"  long  by  i"  square, 


FIG.  118.  —  WORK  BENCH  ASSEMBLED. 

made  of  some  hard  wood.  Metal  bench  stops  can  be 
bought,  but  unless  one  uses  the  bench  a  great  deal, 
the  wooden  stop  will  answer  as  well.  Bore  a  hole  with 
a  i"  bit  through  the  top  of  the  bench  8"  from  the  end 
and  4"  from  the  side  of  the  bench,  and  chisel  it  out 
square  down  through  the  top  and  crosspiece  over  the 
leg. 

The  stop  must  fit  tight  so  that  it  will  stay  where  it  is 
wanted  and  yet  can  be  driven  up  or  down. 


WORK   BENCH  145 

QUESTIONS 

i.  Why  are  the  crosspieces  cut  i"  shorter  than   the  width  of 
the  bench  ? 

.  2.  Why  are  the  crosspieces  spiked  on  top  of  the  legs  rather  than 
the  legs  spiked  to  the  ends  of  the  crosspieces  ? 

3.  If  the  tops  of  the  legs  were  not  sawed  square,  how  would  it 
affect  the  bench  ? 

4.  What  advantage  is  there  in  halving  the  braces  at  the  middle 
over  fastening  them  together  without  halving  ? 

5.  What  advantage  is  there  in  staggering  the  nails  ? 

6.  Is  there  any  advantage  in  fastening  the  braces  inside  the  legs 
instead  of  fastening  them  to  the  edges  of  the  legs  ? 

7.  Why  are  the  legs  fastened  to  the  top  from  underneath  by 
screws  rather  than  from  above  ? 

8.  Why  is  the  larger  hole  in  the  vise  bored  before  the  smaller  one  ? 

9.  Why  is  the  bench  stop  of  wood  rather  than  of  metal  ? 


LESSON  XXVII 

TOOL  CHEST 
STOCK 

30  board  feet  oak  J"  X  6" 
8  board  feet  bass  or  pine  \"  X  12" 

2  doz.  screws  f",  No.  6,  F.  H.  B. 
7  doz.  screws  ij",  No.  8,  F.  H.  B. 

3  butt  hinges,  iron,  3" 
i  Ib.  brads  ij" 
Stain,  filler,  and  shellac 

TOOLS 

Carpenter's  square  Bevel  Screwdriver 

Try-square  Saw  Brace  and  bit 

Sandpaper  Plane  Chisel 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Laying  out. 

2.  Squaring  up  and  doweling. 

3.  Squaring  and  planing  bottom,  sides,  ends. 

4.  Assembling  the  box. 

5.  Mitering  strips  for  the  bottom. 

6.  Cutting  halved  joints  for  the  top. 

7.  Grooving  the  top. 

8.  Mitering  strips  for  the  top. 

9.  Attaching  the  top  to  the  box. 

10.  Making  trays. 

11.  Making  slides. 

12.  Finishing. 

146 


i- 


147 


148 


WOODWORKING 


i.  Laying  out.  —  In  laying  out  the  material,  one 
must  keep  in  mind  the  methods  of  construction. 

In  constructing  a  tool  chest,  the  top  is  made  to  come 
down  over  the  sides  to  keep  out  the  rain.  It  is  made  of 
a  framework  that  will  not  shrink  or  warp,  and  the  panel 
in  the  top  is  kept  in  place  by  a  groove  that  will  not  allow 
it  to  check  or  warp,  as  it  would  if  it  were  fastened  by 
glue  or  screws.  The  sides,  ends,  and  bottom,  are  too 


Section  on  Cd 


FIG.  120.  —  ASSEMBLED  TOOL  CHEST. 

wide  to  be  made  of  a  single  board,  and  so  are  made  from 
glued-up  boards,  each  6"  wide,  and  the  glued  joints 
reenforced  by  dowel  pins.  Dowel  pins  are  short,  round 
pegs  driven  and  glued  into  holes  bored  in  the  edges  of 
the  pieces  to  be  glued,  thereby  strengthening  them. 
The  sides  are  fastened  to  the  ends  by  screws.  For  the 
bottom  saw  off  three  boards  each  2'  5"  long;  for  each 
side,  three  boards  each  2'  6|"  long ;  for  each  end,  three 
boards  each  i'  5"  long. 

The  four  strips  of  the  framework  for  the  top  are  f " 
thick  and  4"  wide,  with  a  rabbet  cut  on  one  edge. 

The  panel  of  the  top  is  cut  with  a  groove  to  fit  the 


TOOL  CHEST 


149 


FIG.  121.  —  HALVING  THE  CORNERS  or  THE  TOP. 


tongue  of  the  rabbet  in  the  frame.  The  rabbet  and 
groove  are  shown  in  Fig.  120  at  A.  The  method  of 
halving  the 
pieces  together 
after  cutting 
the  rabbet  is 
shown  in  Fig. 
121,  which  is  an 
illustration  of 
the  pieces  ready 
to  assemble. 
Figure  122  is  a 
working  draw- 
ing of  the  strips  halved  with  the  rabbet  cut.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  lay  out  the  strips  for  the  top,  and  so  attention 
is  called  to  this  in  order  that  you  may  pay  strict  atten- 
tion to  the  directions.  First,  Lay  out  the  halved  joints 

at  the  ends  by  squaring 
across  the  surface  4"  from 
the  ends  on  each  of  the 
four  pieces.  (It  is  ex- 

f  pected  that  the  pieces  have 

first    been    cut    the    right 

I m 1 1    length  and  width.)     This 

surface  will  be  the  under 


surface  of  the  longer  strips, 
which  are  the  side  strips, 
and  the  upper  surface  of 
the  shorter,  or  end  strips. 
Square  across  the  edges 

from  these  lines.     Set  the  gauge  at  one  half  the  thick- 
ness of  the  strips,  and  gauge  the  edge  of  the  longer  strips 


FIG.  122.  —  WORKING  DRAWING  OF 
STRIPS  HALVED. 


FARM    SHOP    WORK — II 


150  WOODWORKING 

with  the  guide  resting  against  the  under  surface,  which 
is  the  surface  across  which  was  gauged  the  4"  lines. 
Then  gauge  across  the  ends  and  down  each  edge  to  the 
4"  line.  Next  gauge  the  ends  of  the  shorter  strips,  hold- 
ing the  guide  against  the  upper  surface,  which  is  the 
surface  across  which  was  squared  the  4"  lines.  This  is 
the  usual  method  of  gauging  for  halved  joints,  and  in- 
sures the  same  thickness  of  material  to  be  removed  in  the 
longer  strips  as  that  of  the  tongue  in  the  shorter  strips. 

Second,  The  rabbet  can  be  laid  out  with  the  gauge 
set  at  \"  by  holding  the  guide  against  the  upper  sur- 
faces of  all  four  strips,  then  holding  the  guide  against 
the  inner  edges,  and  scribing  along  the  under  surfaces 
of  the  four  strips. 

Third,  The  panel  must  be  glued  up  and  doweled 
before  it  can  be  laid  out.  In  laying  out,  square  up  one 
end  and  one  edge,  lay  off  the  length,  2'  i",  and  saw  and 
plane  square.  Then  lay  off  the  width  I2|",  and  plane. 
Set  the  gauge  at  J"  and  gauge  around  the  four  edges 
with  the  guide  against  the  upper  surface.  Then  set  the 
gauge  at  f "  and  gauge  around  the  four  edges  with  the 
guide  against  the  same  surface. 

2.  Squaring  up  and  doweling.  —  Saw  the  boards 
for  the  bottom  as  laid  out.  Plane  the  edges  perfectly 
straight  and  square  with  the  surfaces. 

Test  the  straightness  of  the  edges,  also  test  them  with 
the  try-square  for  squareness.  When  one  edge  is  fin- 
ished, place  two  witness  marks  on  it  to  show  this.  Then 
plane  one  edge  of  the  second  board  in  the  same  way, 
and  test  it  by  placing  it  on  the  finished  edge  of  the 
first  board  and  look  at  the  crack  towards  the  light 
to  see  if  there  are  any  points  where  the  light  comes 


TOOL  CHEST 


through.  If  the  edges  fit  perfectly,  no  light  will  come 
through,  but  generally  there  will  be  a  crack  at  one  or 
both  ends,  due  to  the  fact  that  you  have  not  been  care- 
ful enough  to  hold  the  plane  level  in  starting  and  finish- 
ing the  stroke.  You  can  prevent  this  trouble  by  press- 
ing down  hard  on  the  knob  of  the  plane  in  starting  the 
stroke,  and  down  on  the  handle  in  finishing  the  stroke. 
When  the  edges  fit  so  far  as  their  straightness  is  con- 
cerned, then  test  them  for  squareness.  Place  one  on 
the  other  and  test  the  surfaces  with  a  straightedge  or 
steel  square.  If  the  edges  are  square,  the  surfaces  will 
be  in  line. 

When  the  boards  are  squared  up,  then  locate  and 
bore  the  dowel  holes.  It  does  not  matter  just  where 
they  are  located  in  the  edge,  but  they  must  be  located 
in  exactly  the  same  places  with  reference  to  each  other. 
Hold  the  two  edges  that 
have  been  fitted  in  the  vise, 
as  in  Fig.  123,  and  locate  one 
hole  3"  from  each  end  and 
one  in  the  center;  square 
across  the  edges  <at  these 
points,  and  with  the  gauge 
set  at  one  half  the  thickness 
of  the  boards,  gauge  across 
the  lines,  holding  the  guide 
against  the  outer  surface  of 
each  board ;  then  the  boards  can  be  folded  together  so 
as  to  fit.  In  boring  for  the  dowel  pins,  use  a  f"  bit, 
and  bore  all  the  holes  the  same  depth.  In  order  to  do 
this  it  will  be  necessary  to  use  some  kind  of  a  bit  gauge 
or  to  count  the  number  of  turns  of  the  brace  it  takes  to 


FIG.  123.  —  LOCATING  DOWEL  HOLES. 


152  WOODWORKING 

bore  to  the  required  depth.  A  bit  gauge  can  be  pur- 
chased or  one  can  be  made  that  will  answer  the  pur- 
pose just  as  well  unless  a  large  number  of  holes  of 
different  depths  are  to  be  bored.  Figure 
124  illustrates  one  that  can  be  used  in 
this  case.  A  square  block  of  wood  the 
length  of  the  bit  when  in  the  brace  is 
bored  from  end  to  end  and  cut  off  so  as 
to  expose  just  if"  from  the  cutting  lip  of 
FIG.  124.— A  BIT  the  bit  to  the  lower  end  of  the  block.  The 
dowel  pin  will  extend  i"  into  each  board, 
but  the  extra  J"  is  bored  to  allow  plenty  of  room  for 
the  tight  fit  of  the  edges,  and  any  surplus  glue  that 
cannot  get  out. 

Be  careful  not  to  measure  from  the  end  of  the  screw 
or  the  spur,  but  from  the  cutting  lip.  Dowel  bits  are 
used  when  a  good  deal  of  doweling  is  done.  They  are 
shorter  than  the  others  and  so  are  easier  to  operate, 
but  they  have  no  other  advantages.  The  operations 
thus  far  described  are  to  be  repeated  for  the  sides  and 
the  ends  and  top  panel. 

Dowel  pins  should  always  be  of  some  hard,  close- 
grained  wood,  as  maple  or  birch,  and  can  be  purchased 
at  a  planing  mill,  but  it  is  well  to  make  them,  unless 
you  are  using  a  great  number.  They  should  not  fit 
so  tight  as  to  force  all  of  the  glue  out  of  the  sides  of 
the  holes.  Those  purchased  are  grooved  along  the 
sides  for  this  purpose,  but  when  made  by  hand,  they 
can  be  left  slightly  irregular. 

Rip  a  strip  of  maple  or  birch  about  2'  long  and  \" 
square ;  plane  down  to  -f "  square,  and  then  plane  off 
the  four  corners,  making  it  eight  sided.  As  it  will  be 


TOOL  CHEST  153 

difficult  to  plane  the  corners  of  so  small  a  strip,  you  can 
use  a  board  that  will  hold  the  strip  true  while  planing ; 
such  a  board  is  shown  in  Fig.  125.     Select  two  pieces  of 
pine,  and   gauge   down   one 
edge  and  one  adjacent  sur-    Jff^~ 
face  f "  ;    chamfer  down  to    ^ 
these  lines  with   the   plane.      F'°'  ^ 
When    these   two    chamfers 

are  placed  together,  they  form  a  right  angle.  Fasten 
the  two  pieces  together  with  screws  near  the  top,  and 
bore  a  f"  hole  near  one  end.  Into  this  drive  a  hard- 
wood dowel  pin  so  that  it  comes  flush  with  the  top 
edges  of  the  board. 

Hold  this  board  in  the  vise  and  place  the  square  strips 
in  the  groove  when  planing  off  the  corners.  The  peg 
answers  the  purposes  of  the  dog  in  the  bench.  '  It  is  not 
necessary  or  advisable  to  make  the  dowel  pins  perfectly 
round,  but  leave  them  eight  sided  and  a  trifle  large  for 
the  holes,  large  enough  so  that  they  will  have  to  be  driven 
in  place  with  a  mallet.  The  eight  corners  will  then  fit 
the  hole  very  tightly,  and  the  eight  sides  will  leave 
enough  room  for  the  glue  to  fasten  the  pin  in  the  hole 
and  for  any  surplus  glue  to  escape. 

When  all  the  boards  have  been  fitted  with  dowels, 
spread  the  glue  on  the  edges  of  one  board  and  into  the 
dowel  holes ;  drive  the  pins  in  place ;  spread  the  glue 
on  the  other  edge  and  into  the  holes;  and  drive  the  second 
board  up  against  the  edge  of  the  first  by  placing  a  block 
of  waste  lumber  on  one  edge  and  driving  with  the  mallet 
so  as  not  to  mar  the  edge.  Then  glue  on  the  third 
board  in  like  manner,  and  place  in  the  long  clamps. 
Before  clamping  up  tight,  place  strips  on  upper  and 


154  WOODWORKING 

under  surfaces  near  the  ends  and  hold  in  place  with  two 
carriage  or  wooden  clamps  at  each  end.  Then  draw  the 
boards  up  tight  with  the  long  clamps.  Be  careful  to 
place  waste  stock  between  the  clamps  and  the  edges 
of  the  boards,  otherwise  the  edges  would  be  marred  by 
the  clamps.  Set  aside  for  several  hours  to  dry. 

3.  Squaring  and  planing  bottom,  sides,  and  ends.  - 
When  the  bottom,  sides,  and  ends  are  glued  up  and  dry, 
they  must  be  surfaced  on  both  sides  and  squared  up  to 
the    dimensions    shown   in   the    drawings.     After   sur- 
facing both  sides,  finish  the  outside  with  sandpaper. 

4.  Assembling  the  box.  --  The  assembling  of  the  box 
will  test  your  workmanship.     If  you   have  not   been 
careful  in  the  measuring  and  squaring  up,  it  will  be  nec- 
essary to  do  some  trimming  in  order  to  make  the  box 
square  and  a  good  fit.     When  the  bottom,  sides,  and 
ends  are  finished,  they  should  be  assembled.     Fasten 
the  sides  on  to  the  ends  with  screws  if",  No.  8.     Bore 
the  holes  and  countersink  according  to  directions  given 
in  previous  lessons. 

Next  fit  the  bottom  in  place  and  fasten  with  screws. 

5.  Mitering  the 'strips  for  the  bottom. -- The  strips 
for  the  bottom  cannot  be  laid  out  until  the  box  is  as- 
sembled, as  the  exact  dimensions  will  not  be  known  until 
then.     Surface  and  square  up  the  3"  strips.     Then  set 
the  bevel  square  at  45  degrees  and  scribe  one  end  of 
each  of  the  four  pieces  ;   square  across  the  inner  surface 
from  the  point  where  the  45-degree  line  meets  the  inner 
surface  ;  and  saw  so  as  to  split  the  lines.     Test  the  miter 
with  the  bevel  square  and  trim  with  the  block  plane. 

Lay  the  strip  where  it  belongs  on  the  box,  and  very 
carefully  set  the  inside  edge  of  the  miter  already  cut  on 


TOOL  CHEST  155 

the  corner,  and  scribe  the  other  corner  so  as  to  get  the 
length  of  the  piece  accurately.  From  this  line  lay  out 
the  second  miter  and  saw  as  before.  Fasten  this  strip 
in  place  with  screws,  and  lay  out  the  strip  on  the  oppo- 
site side  in  the  same  manner,  and  fasten  it  in  place. 
The  two  remaining  strips  can  be  fitted  in  place  more 
accurately  than  if  they  had  been  fitted  around  the  box 
instead  of  in  pairs. 

6.  Cutting  the  halved  joints  for  the  top.  --The  top 
has  already  been  laid  out  and  should  now  be  sawed  and 
planed  according  to  the  lay  out. 

Saw  the  halved  joints,  ripping  down  to  the  shoulder 
first  and  then  crosscutting  the  shoulder.  If  the  joints 
do  not  fit  nicely,  trim  them  down  with  a  broad  chisel 
and  block  plane,  planing  across  the  grain  and  chiseling 
the  part  next  the  shoulder  that  cannot  be  reached  by 
the  plane. 

7.  Grooving  the  top.  —  In  cutting  the  groove  or  rab- 
bet, workmen  usually  use  a  special  form  of  plane  called 
by  various  names   according  to 

the  use  it  is  intended  for.  But 
it  is  possible  to  cut  the  rabbet 
with  nothing  but  the  chisel  and 
mallet.  Chisel  down  nearly  to 
the  line,  as  shown  in  Fig.  126, 
and  trim  with  a  broad  chisel 

down  tO  the  lines  from  both  the    FlG-    126. —  CUTTING  RABBET 
i  ii  r  T«I  WITH  A  CHISEL. 

edge     and     the     surface.       I  he 

groove  extends  \"  past  the  shoulder  at  each  end.  Glue 
the  corner  made  by  one  side  and  one  end,  and  fasten 
with  f"  screws  from  the  under  side.  Then  glue  the 
corner  made  by  the  other  side  and  end,  and  fasten  in  the 


156  WOODWORKING 

same  way.  Do  not  assemble  all  four  pieces  until  the 
panel  has  been  made  and  is  ready  to  put  in  place. 
Groove  the  edges  and  ends  of  the  panel  with  the  chisel 
in  the  same  way  as  the  frame  was  grooved,  but  the 
groove  in  this  case  is  in  the  middle  of  the  edges  instead 
of  to  one  side.  Cut  the  groove  \"  and  trim  the  sides, 
or  cheeks,  with  a  broad  chisel. 

Fit  the  panel  into  one  corner,  and  then  fit  the  other 
corner  in  place  on  the  other  side ;  when  a  good  fit  is 
assured,  glue  the  two  remaining  halved  joints  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  first  pair,  but  holding  them  to- 
gether tightly  with  the  long  clamps.  Do  not  glue 
the  panel  in  place,  as  its  shrinking  would  cause  it  to 
crack.  The  tongue  and  groove  will  hold  it  securely 
from  warping,  allowing  it  to  shrink  and  expand  with- 
out cracking. 

8.  Mitering  the  strips  for  the  top.  —  If  the  top  has 
been  made  according  to  the  dimensions  on  the  drawings, 
it  will  extend  over  the  sides  of  the  box  i"  on  each  side 
and  over  the  ends  the  same  distance.  Four  strips  each 
i"  wide  and  f"  thick  are  to  be  fastened  to  the  under- 
side of  this  overhang  of  the  top.  These  strips  must  be 
fitted  so  as  to  fit  tight  around  the  box,  and  are  to  be 
mitered  at  the  corners.  Lay  out  and  cut  just  as  the 
bottom  strips  were.  Fasten  to  the  top  by  screws  put 
down  through  the  top  into  the  strips.  (See  B,  Fig.  120.) 
Underneath  these  strips  are  four  others  the  same  size 
fastened  to  the  box,  and  they  act  as  a  shoulder  on  which 
fall  the  top  strips.  (A,  Fig.  119.) 

The  mitered  corners  should  be  fastened  with  two  2" 
brads  from  each  side.  These  strips  can  be  fastened 
on  with  round-head  screws  if  desired.  They  are  more 


TOOL  CHEST  157 

expensive  than   the   flat   ones,  but  they  improve  the 
appearance  of  the  chest. 

9.  Attaching  the  top.  --  Fasten  on  the  top  with  three 
butt  hinges  3"  long  screwed  on  the  top  strips,  and  put 
a  hasp  on  the  front  strips  in  the  middle. 

A  chain  should  be  fastened  to  the  inside  of  the  box 
and  the  underside  of  the  cover,  so  the  box  can  be  opened 
and  remain  so  without  holding  the  cover. 

10.  Making  trays.  -  -  The  two  trays  are  for  the  pur- 
pose  of  holding  the   smaller  tools,  such  as  bits,  files, 
scrapers,   and  screwdriv- 
ers.      They     are     parti- 
tioned   off   as    shown   in 

Fig.  127.     The  top  tray 

should  be  2'  \\"  long  and 

8"    wide,    and    3"    deep 

(outside   measurements), 

and   made  of  soft  wood 

\"  thick.    The  lower  tray        FlG  'I27._TRAY  OF  TooL  CHEST. 

should  be  i"  shorter  and 

the  same  width  and  depth.     Nail  on  the  sides  to  the 

ends  and  the  partitions,  then  nail  on  the  bottom. 

11.  Making  slides.  --The  slides  on  which  the  trays 
rest  should  be  as  long  as  the  chest  is  wide  (inside  meas- 
urements), and  made  of  two  pieces  of 
\"  pine,  one  piece  6"  wide  and  the 
other  3"  wide,   as  in  Fig.   128.     The 
3"  strip  is  nailed  to  the  6"  strip  with 
one    edge    flush,    and    the    whole    is 

screwed  to  the  ends  of  the  chest  3"  down  from  the  upper 
edge,  as  shown  in  Section  on  ab,  Fig.  119. 

12.  Finishing. -- The   subject   of  wood    finishing   is 


158  WOODWORKING 

taken  up  in  another  part  of  the  book,  and  the  directions 
are  not  to  be  repeated  here.  The  chest  may  be  stained 
with  some  dark  color  and  filled  with  a  filler  of  the  same 
color,  then  covered  with  a  coat  of  orange  shellac,  which 
should  be  sanded  down,  and  then  finally  covered  with  a 
coat  or  two  of  spar  varnish. 

Handles  can  be  added  if  desired. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  requisites  of  a  good  tool  chest  ? 

2.  What  are  the  advantages  of  doweling  a  glued  joint  ? 

3.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  rabbet  and  a  groove  ? 

4.  In  halving  the  corners,  why  do  you  rest  the  guide  against 
opposite  surfaces  ? 

5.  Why  are  witness  marks  placed  on  surfaces  that  are  finished  ? 

6.  What  precautions  should  you  take  in  jointing  up  edges  of 
boards  ? 

7.  Why  do  you  gauge  from  opposite  surfaces  of  the  boards 
when  locating  dowel  holes  ? 

8.  Why  should  dowel  pins  not  fit  the  holes  too  tight  ? 

9.  How  can  you  protect  the  edges  of  boards  from  being  marred 
by  the  mallet  or  clamps  ? 

10.  What  advantages  do  the  mitered  joints  have  over  the  butt 
joints  ?     What  disadvantages  ? 

11.  Why  is  the  lower  tray  shorter  than  the  upper  tray  ? 


LESSON  XXVIII 

TIMBER 

Classes  of  trees.  -  -  Trees  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
-  broadleaf  trees  and  needleleaf  trees.  Since  most 
of  the  broadleaf  trees  have  hard  wood,  this  class  is 
known  quite  generally  as  hardwoods  ;  and  since  most  of 
the  needleleaf  trees  have  soft  wood,  this  group  is  known 
as  softwoods. 

BROADLEAF  TREES  NEEDLELEAF  TREES 

Oak  Mahogany  Pine 

Ash  Hickory  Hemlock 

Butternut  Elm  Cedar 

Maple  Basswood  Fir 

Birch  Yellow  poplar  Spruce 

Beech  Cottonwood  Tamarack 
Walnut 

Manner  of  growth.  —  All  trees,  except  the  palms, 
add  each  year  one  layer  of  wood  or  annual  ring  to  their 
trunks.  Each  annual  ring  consists  of  two  parts,  —  an 
inner  layer  called  spring  wood  and  an  outer  layer  called 
summer  wood.  The  spring  wood  is  more  porous  than 
the  summer  wood  and  is  lighter  in  color  and  weight. 
Being  more  compact,  the  summer  wood  gives  more 
strength  to  the  tree  than  does  the  spring  wood.  Ra- 
diating from  the  center,  and  cutting  across  the  annual 
rings  at  right  angles,  are  thin  plates  of  wood,  called 


i6o 


WOODWORKING 


medullary  rays.  In  several  species  of  trees  the  medul- 
lary rays  are  so  thick  that  they  may  easily  be  seen  in 
cross  section  as  radial  lines  running  across  th-e  annual 
rings. 

Heartwood  and  sapwood.  —  As  a  tree  grows  in  size, 
adding  a  layer  each  year  just  under  the  bark,  the  inner 
layers  become  denser  and  darker  in  color.  These  rings 
are  called  heartwood.  The  lighter,  outer  layers  of  wood 
through  which  the  sap  flows  are  the  sapwood  of  a  tree. 
Usually  the  heartwood  is  better  for  all  purposes,  be- 
cause it  is  more  compact  and  not  so  full  of  decompos- 
able sap,  though  the  sapwood  of  some  trees,  such  as 
hickory  and  ash,  is  better  than  the  heartwood. 

Hardness  of  wood.  —  By  hardness  we  mean  the 
ability  to  resist  pressure.  It  requires  greater  pressure 
to  drive  a  chisel  to  a  given  depth  in  a  hard  wood  than  in 
a  soft  wood.  The  thickness  of  the  cell  walls  and  the 
smallness  of  the  cell  cavities  determine  the  hardness. 
Soft  woods  hold  glue  much  better  than  hard  woods. 
Before  gluing,  hard  woods  should  always  be  scratched 
or  scored. 


TABLE  OF  HARDNESS 


VERY  HARD 

HARD 

FAIRLY  HARD 

SOFT 

Maple 

Soft  maple 

Gum 

Butternut 

White  oak 

Red  oak 

Chestnut 

Basswood 

Osage  orange 

Ash 

Poplar 

Redwood 

Rosewood 

Elm 

Hemlock 

Cedar 

Holly 

Hickory 

Norway  pine 

Cottonwood 

Ebony 

Cherry 

Tamarack 

White  pine 

Cocobola 

Birch 

Sycamore 

Spruce 

Lignum  vitae 

Hard  pine 

TIMBER  l6l 

Strength  of  wood.  —  Strength  is  the  ability  to  resist 
any  kind  of  stress  or  strain.  Some  woods  stand  more 
strain  of  pulling  and  compressing  than  an  equal  weight 
of  wrought  iron.  Thoroughly  dry  wood  is  much  stronger 
than  green  wood. 

Elasticity  of  wood.  —  Elasticity  is  the  capacity  of 
wood  to  regain  its  former  shape  after  being  bent  and 
twisted  out  of  shape.  Hickory  is  the  most  elastic  of 
woods.  It  is  used  in  making  ax  handles,  forks,  hoes, 
bows,  fishing-rod  butts,  and  golf  sticks. 

Toughness  of  wood.  —  By  toughness  we  mean 
strength  and  flexibility.  Woods  named  in  the  order  of 
their  toughness  are  hickory,  ironwood,  rock  elm,  birch, 
oak,  ash.  Because  of  this  quality,  hickory  is  used  for 
the  spokes,  and  elm  for  the  hubs  of  wheels. 

Weight  of  wood. --The  woody  substance  is  heavier 
than  water,  so  if  timber  were  all  woody  substance 
it  would  sink  in  water.  It  floats  because  of  the  air 
spaces  in  the  cells.  The  difference  in  weight  of  the 
species  of  wood  is  due  to  the  proportion  of  air  spaces 
to  woody  fiber.  A  cubic  foot  of  white  pine  weighs  24 
pounds,  while  the  same  volume  of  white  oak  weighs 
50  pounds. 

Shrinkage  of  wood.  —  When  moisture  evaporates 
from  wood,  the  wood  shrinks  in  size.  As  the  wood  is 
not  uniform  in  structure,  there  will  be  more  rapid  shrink- 
age in  some  portions  of  it  than  in  others,  and  warping 
results.  Shrinkage  is  greatest  in  the  direction  of  the 
rings,  less  in  the  radial  direction,  and  least  in  the  longi- 
tudinal direction.  Thick-walled  cells  will  shrink  more 
than  thin-walled  cells  ;  therefore,  summer  wood  shrinks 
more  than  spring  wood.  The  medullary  rays  shrink 


162 


WOODWORKING 


very  little  in  the  radial  direction  ;  therefore,  as  the  wood 
on  each  side  shrinks,  it  pulls  away  from  the  medullary 
rays,  causing  checks  and  splits.  The 
outside  layers  of  a  log  will  check  be- 
cause they  dry  out  faster  than  the 
inner  layers  (Fig.  129).  When  the 
entire  log  is  dry  (Fig.  130),  these 
checks  close  up  somewhat.  When  a 
log  is  sawed  into  boards,  the  surfaces 

FIG.   129.  — CHECKS  AT       .      ,.    ,  .  .  .... 

THE  END  OF  A  LOG  01  all  boards  except  the  middle  one 
PARTLY  DRY.  wjjj  snrmk  unevenly,  causing  warping ; 

and  those  surfaces  farthest  from  the  center  of  the  log 
will  shrink  most,  causing  the  warping 
shown  in  Fig.  131.  Notice  that  the 
concave  sides  of  the  boards  are  far- 
thest from  the  center  of  the  log. 
The  center  board  shrinks  evenly  be- 
cause the  two  surfaces  ^are  the  same  FIG  I30  _CHECKS  AT 
distance  from  the  center;  but  the  END  OF  A  DRY  PIECE 
edges  of  this  board  are  thinner  than 
the  center  because  there  is  more  shrinkage  there  on 
account  of  its  greater  distance  from 
the  center  of  the  log.  Boards  that 
are  joined  edge  to  edge,  as  in  table 
tops,  should  be  so  joined  that  the 
warping  of  one  board  will  be  in  the 
opposite  direction  from  that  of  the 
board  next  to  it.  In  order  to  accom- 
DIFFERENT  PARTS  OF  pHsh  this,  join  the  boards  with  their 

A  LOG.  .     .    '  , 

annual  rings  curving  in  the  opposite 
direction,  as  in  Fig.  132. 

A  shaky  piece  of  timber  is  one  that  has  cracks  or  splits 


TIMBER  163 

between  the  annual  rings.  Splits  that  run  from  the 
heart  to  the  circumference  perpendicular  to  the  annular 
rings  are  called  heart  shakes.  Rapid  drying  of  wood 
is  always  harmful,  as  the  ^^_^  -yv.^^a-=^.. 

surface  dries  more  quickly 

than    the    interior,    and    SO    FIG.  132.  — METHOD  OF  JOINING  BOARDS 
11  r  •  EDGE  TO  EDGE. 

pulls  away  from  it,  causing 

checks.     Ordinary    kiln-dried    lumber    is    inferior    to 

seasoned  lumber  for  this  reason. 

In  kilns,  lumber  is  subjected  to  a  dry  heat  for  several 
days  or  weeks,  which  is  not  sufficient  time  to  dry  it 
thoroughly.  Some  kilns  are  managed  by  first  injecting 
wet  steam  into  the  kiln  to  dissolve  the  chemicals  in  the 
pores  ;  then  adding  dry  heat  for  a  long  time,  which  drives 
out  the  moisture  gradually,  and  so  prevents  checking. 

In  seasoning,  lumber  is  piled  under  cover  with 
strips  between  layers  of  boards,  and  allowed  to  remain 
there  from  two  to  four  years.  In  this  way  it  dries 
thoroughly  and  evenly.  To  prevent  checking  at  the  ends 
of  thick  planks,  it  is  well  to  paint  the  ends  before  drying 
them.  The  hardwoods  must  be  dried  more  slowly  than 
the  softwoods,  or  they  will  check  and  warp  badly. 

Coarse-grained  and  close-grained  woods.  -  -  The 
wood  of  trees  may  be  classified  as  coarse-grained  or 
close-grained  according  to  their  texture  : 

COARSE-GRAINED  CLOSE-GRAINED 

Chestnut  Mahogany         Soft  pine  Boxwood 

Elm  Rosewood          Basswood  Cherry 

Ash  Hickory  Poplar  Gum 

Oak  Maple  Cedar 

Butternut  Birch  Western  hemlock 

Walnut  Beech  Spruce 


164 


WOODWORKING 


Adaptation  to  special  uses.  —  Each  kind  of  wood 
possesses  some  characteristic  which  makes  it  valuable 
in  certain  lines  of  work  and  useless  in  others.  The 
following  tables  give  woods  adapted  to  particular  uses  : 


TIMBER  FOR  PLACING  IN 
MOIST  SITUATIONS 

Chestnut 
White  cedar 
Redwood 
Cypress 
Locust 
Red  cedar 


TIMBER  FOR  LIGHT 
FRAMING 

Spruce 
Yellow  pine 
White  pine 
Hemlock 


TIMBER  FOR  HEAVY 
FRAMING 

Georgia  pine 
Oregon  pine 
White  oak 
Fir 
Norway  pine 


TIMBER  FOR  OUTSIDE 
FINISH 

White  pine 

Redwood 

Cypress 

Cedar 

Spruce 


TIMBER  FOR  FLOORS 

Hard  pine 
Oak 
Birch 
Maple 


TIMBER  FOR  INTERIOR 
TRIM 

Pine 

Birch 

Oak 

Butternut 

Mahogany 

Cherry 


LESSON  XXIX 

WOODWORKING  TOOLS 
BEVEL 


Thumb  Screw 


FIG.  133-  — BEVEL. 


/a 


The  bevel  has  a  movable  blade  that  can  be  adjusted  to 
any  angle  and  held  in  that  position  by  a  thumbscrew.  It 
is  used  for  marking  and  testing  any  angle,  as  the  try-square 
is  used  for  right 

angles.  The  an-  ""5  /2* 

gles  can  be  meas- 
ured by  means 

of  a  protractor,  /.nA     \  &'A 

or  a  carpenter's 
square  may  be 
used  for  the 
most  common 
angles.  Fig.  134 
shows  what  dis- 
tances to  take 
for  the  most 
common  angles. 


12" 


2A" 

//i" 


FIG.  134. — DISTANCES  TO  BE  USED  IN  SETTING  BEVEL 


FARM    SHOP    WORK 12 


AT  THE  MOST  COMMON  ANGLES. 
165 


i66 


WOODWORKING 


Fig.  135  shows  the  method  of  setting  the  bevel  at 
an  angle  of  30  degrees. 


FIG.  135.— METHOD  OF  SETTING  BEVEL  AT  ANGLE  OF  30°. 

BRACE  AND  BIT 

Of  the  several  kinds  of  bits  used  by  the  woodworker, 
the  auger  bit,  shown  in  Fig.  136,  is 
used  more  often  than  any  other. 
The  German  center  bit  is  shown  in  Fig. 


FIG.  136.  —  AUGER  BIT. 

bit  in  Fig.  138. 


137: 


and   Steer's 


patent  expansion 


Figure  139  shows   FIG.  137.  — GERMAN  CENTER 

a  gimlet,  or  twist  bit.      The  bit- 
brace that  holds  the  bit  is  shown 
in  Fig.  140.       It  consists  of  a 

FIG.  138.  —  STEER'S  PATENT  Ex-     k  n  O  b 
PANSION  BIT. 


and     handle,     or    sweep 


chuck, 

/-pi  FIG.  139.  —  GIMLET. 


FIG.  140. —  BITBRACE. 


braces  are  designated 
by  the  size  of  sweep ; 
a  10"  sweep  means  that 
the  handle  extends  out 
a  distance  of  10".  A 
ratchet  brace  has  the 
chuck  set  in  a  ratchet  so 


WOOKWORKING  TOOLS  167 

that  it  can  be  used  in  a  corner  where  it  is  impossible  to 
turn  the  handle  all  the  way  round.  The  expansion  bit 
has  a  lip  held  in  place  by  a  set  screw  a,  Fig.  138,  which 
is  pushed  in  and  out  by  the  set  screw  b,  so  it  is  possible 
to  bore  holes  of  various  sizes  with  the  one  bit.  The 
gimlet,  used  for  boring  small  holes,  is  made  of  hardened 
steel,  and  will  not  be  injured  if  it  strikes  a  nail. 

CHISEL 

Chisels  are  cutting  or  edged  tools,  and  are  designated 
by  the  width  of  the  blade.  They  range  by  eighths  from 
|"  to  i",  and  by  quarters  from  i".to  2".  Very  few 
chisels  are  wider  than  2" ' . 

The  handles  are  fastened  to  the  blades  either  by  a 
socket  or  a  tang.     The  socket  is  a  hollow  cone  in  one 
end  of  the  blade, 
and    the    handle 
is    turned     down 
to  fit  this  socket.  _ 

rr\-i  •  - , — — i  ""1  I L         T'"^'"l| 

ihe     tang     is     a    ^  — :E^   -: — «- — ^*~** 

Sharp    point    with  FlG"  '4i.~  CHISELS. 

a  shoulder,  and  is  driven  into  the  handle  up  to  the 
shoulder.  The  handle  of  a  tanged  chisel  has  a  metal 
ferrule  to  prevent  splitting. 

Chisels  are  divided  into  three  general  classes  accord- 
ing to  their  uses.  The  paring  chisel  has  a  light,  thin 
blade  intended  to  be  used  in  the  light  work  of  paring, 
or  taking  thin  shavings,  and  should  never  be  driven  by 
a  mallet.  The  firmer  chisel  is  heavier  and  intended  for 
all  ordinary  work.  The  framing  chisel  is  the  heaviest 
and  is  used  for  cutting  mortises  in  heavy  timbers.  The 
handle  is  in  a  socket,  and  it  has  a  heavy  iron  ferrule 


1 68 


WOODWORKING 


at  the  upper  end  to  prevent  splintering  by  blows  of 
the  mallet.  Some  chisels  are  bevel-edged,  which 
have  advantages  over  the  other  form  in  cutting  dovetail 
joints,  as  the  thin  edge  enables  one  to  cut  down  close 
to  the  line  without  danger  of  splitting  the  sides  of  the 
mortise. 

DRAWSHAVE  AND  SPOKESHAVE 

The  drawshave,  Fig.  142,  is  a  long  chisel  pulled  by  two 
hands,  and  is  used  in  rather  coarse  work  where  con- 


FIG.  142.  —  DRAWSHAVE. 

siderable  material  is  to  be  removed.  The  sections  in 
this  drawing  show  shapes  of  blades  for  different  uses. 
The  spokeshave,  Fig.  143,  is  a  small  plane  with  a  very 

short  sole,  and 
so  may  be  used 
oncurvedwork. 


Fto.    M3.-SOOKESHAVE. 


g 


pushed  by  the  two  handles  at  the  side  of  the  blade. 
The  depth  of  cut  may  be  regulated  by  the  set  screw  on 
the  blade. 

GOUGE 

The  gouge  is  a 
chisel  with  curved 
blade.  If  the  gouge 
is  ground  on  the 
outside,  or  convex 
surface,  it  is  called  FIG.  144.  —  GOUGES. 


WOODWORKING  TOOLS  169 

outside  ground ;  and  if  ground  on  the  inside,  or  con- 
cave surface,  it  is  called  inside  ground.  The  gouge  is 
measured  across  from  edge  to  edge,  and  is  designated 
by  this  dimension.  By  its  curvature,  or  sweep,  it  is 
designated  as  flat,  middle,  or  full  curved. 

MARKING  GAUGE 

This  tool  consists  of  the  beam,  which  is  usually  8" 
or  10"  long  and  nearly  square,  with  a  spur  or  steel  point 
fastened  in  one  end  so  that  it  projects  about  -^ ".  The 
head  or  guide  is  a  block  which  slides  on  the  beam,  and 
is  held  in  position  by  a  thumbscrew.  One  side  of  the 
beam  is  graduated  into  inches  and  fractions  of  an  inch. 
If  the  spur  becomes  bent,  these  graduations  no  longer 
indicate  the  correct  distances. 

PLANE 

The  plane  consists  of  a  blade  set  in  a  cast-iron  or 
wooden  stock.  The  front  end  of  the  stock  is  the  toe,  and 
the  back  end  is  the  heel.  The  bottom  is  the  sole,  and 
the  opening  or  slit  in  it  is  the  mouth.  The  plane  is  held 
in  both  hands,  by  the  knob  in  front  and  the  handle  be- 
hind. The  blade,  which  is  the  cutting  iron  of  the  plane, 
is  fastened  to  the  stock  by  an  iron  clamp.  Fastened  to 
the  upper  side  of  the  blade  is  a  cap  iron,  or  chip  breaker. 
The  iron  clamp  fastens  the  blade  and  cap  iron  to  the 
frog.  The  slot  in  the  blade  allows  the  cap  iron  to  be 
regulated  at  different  distances  from  the  edge  of  the 
blade  ;  also  the  lower  end  of  the  lever  fits  into  this  slot 
and  adjusts  it  from  side  to  side.  In  the  cap  iron  are 
three  openings  :  At  the  upper  end  is  a  small  slot,  by 
which  it  is  regulated  up  and  down  with  the  thumb- 


170 


WOODWORKING 


screw.     Below  this  is    a   small,    round-threaded    hole, 
through  which   passes   a   short   machine   screw  which 


1  Plane  Iron  6  Frog  n  Handle 

2  Plane  Iron  Cap  7  Y  Adjustment         12  /('nob  1 7  Mouth 

3  Plane  Iron  Screw  &  Adjusting  Nut        13  Handle  Bolt  IB  Toe 

4  Cap  9  Lateral  Adj.  Lever  14  Knob  Boll     i9HeeJ 
<f  Cop  Screw  10  Frog  Sere  w          / s Handle  -Screw 

FIG.  145. — PLANE. 

fastens  the  cap  iron  to  the  blade.     Beneath  this  is  a 

larger  slot,  through  which 
passes  the  longer  machine 
screw  which  is  screwed  in- 
to the  frog,  and  by  means 
of  the  clamp  this  screw  holds 
the  blade  and  cap  iron  to 
the  frog.  Back  of  the  frog 
and  in  front  of  the  handle  is 
the  thumbscrew,  which  en- 
gages a  lever  that  fits  into 
the  upper  slot  of  the  cap 
iron  and  forces  it  up  and 
down.  This  motion  carries 
the  edge  of  the  blade  in  and 

FIG.X46.-SETTINGTHEPLANEBLADE.     °Ut    °f    ^     m°UtH     ^     *** 

it  for  depth  of  cut. 

While  setting  the  plane  blade,   hold  the  plane   as 
shown  in  Fig.  146  and  sight  along  the  sole  of  the  stock, 


WOODWORKING  TOOLS  171 

as  along  a  gun  barrel,  with  one  eye  closed ;  and  in  this 
way  you  can  see  how  much  of  the  blade  projects,  and 
regulate  it  accordingly.  The  lever  working  in  the  slot 
of  the  blade  regulates  the  blade  from  side  to  side. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  planes.  Those  most 
commonly  used  are  the  smoothing  plane,  used  for  sur- 
facing lumber;  and  the  jack  plane,  used  for  edging  and 
for  rough  surfacing  lumber  when  it  is  necessary  to  re- 
move a  quantity  of  stock  to  reduce  the  thickness.  The 
jointer  is  a  long  jack  plane  which  is  used  to  true  up  the 
edges  of  boards  preparatory  to  gluing  them,  or  to  make 
straight  edges.  The  block  plane  has  the  blade  set  at 
a  low  angle  and  is  used  for  planing  across  the  grain  of 
the  ends  of  boards. 

RULE 

The  rule  ordinarily  used  by  carpenters  and  cabinet 
makers  is  two  feet  long,  made  of  boxwood,  and  bound 
with  brass.  On  each  -^-p-p^-n^^-i,^^ 
of  the  four  edges 
there  are  marks 
every  i",  *",  J", 
and  f "  ;  and  two  of 

,  i  .i  FIG.  147.  —  RULE. 

the  edges  also  have 
marks  every  •£$ " .  There  are,  in  addition  to  these  marks, 
others  representing  scales.  Suppose  the  object  we  wish 
to  draw  is  too  large  to  be  represented  full  size ;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, a  barn.  It  would  have  to  be  drawn  on  a  smaller 
scale  of,  say,  J"  to  the  foot.  We  would  use  that  part 
of  the  rule  where  a  quarter  of  an  inch  is  divided  off  into 
twelve  parts,  each  representing  an  inch  on  the  reduced 
scale.  The  scale  marked  3  means  that  a  space  of  3" 


172 


WOODWORKING 


is    divided    off   into    twelfths,    each    representing   one 
inch. 

If  it  is  desired  to  find  the  middle  of  a  board  of  such  a 
width,  that  to  measure  one  half  of  it  would  mean  the  use 
of  fractions  not  found  on  the  rule,  for  example,  3§", 
the  middle  can  be  found  easily  by  setting  the  rule  diago- 
nally on  the  surface,  so  that  it  measures  an  even  number 
from  edge  to  edge  of  the  board  ;  and  then  mark  off  the 
middle  point  of  this  division.  In  this  way  a  board  may 
be  divided  into  any  number  of  equal  parts.  If  three 
parts  are  wanted,  use  a  number  of  inches  divisible  by 
three. 

SAW 

Next  to  the  hammer,  the  saw  is  the  most  important 
tool  used  by  the  woodworker.  Saws  are  used  for  cut- 
ting lumber  into  smaller  pieces,  and  when  the  cutting 

is  across  the  grain, 
the  teeth  must  be 
so  sharpened  that 
they  will  cut  just  as 
the  point  of  a  knife 
cuts  when  drawn 
across  the  grain. 
Such  saws  are  called 
crosscut  saws.  Saws 
used  for  cutting  par- 
allel with  the  grain 
have  the  teeth  filed 
like  the  edge  of  a  narrow  chisel,  and  are  called  ripsaws. 
Fig.  148  shows  the  teeth  of  a  ripsaw.  Fig.  149  shows 
the  teeth  of  a  crosscut  saw. 


FIG.  148.  —  TEETH  OF  A  RIPSAW. 


FIG.  149.  — TEETH  OF  A  CROSSCUT  SAW. 


WOODWORKING  TOOLS  173 

The  shape  of  the  teeth  also  determines  the  use  of  the 
saw.  Notice  in  the  crosscut  teeth  that  the  sides  make 
equal  angles  with  the  horizontal  line  while,  one  edge 
of  the  ripcaw  teeth  makes  an  angle  of  90  degrees  with 
this  line,  and  the  other  side  a  variable  angle.  Saws  for 
coarse  work  have  large  teeth,  and  consequently,  in  such 
saws  there  are  fewer  teeth  to  the  inch  than  in  saws  in- 
tended for  fine  work.  The  size  of  the  teeth  is  designated 
by  so  many  points  per  inch.  In  a  6-point  saw  there  are 
six  teeth  to  the  inch,  and  this  number  is  stamped  on  the 
end  of  the  blade  next  to  the  handle. 

The  bevel  on  the  edges  of  a  crosscut  saw  is  called 
the  fleam,  and  the  wider  this  fleam,  the  sharper  and 
weaker  the  teeth.  The  weak  tooth  will  soon  wear  out 
on  hardwood,  and  so  a  saw  to  be  used  on  hardwood 
should  have  a  narrow  fleam.  The  angle  at  the  front 
edge  of  the  tooth  affects  the  smoothness  of  the  cut  and 
the  force  necessary  to  push  the  saw  through  the  wood. 
This  can  be  illustrated  by  drawing  the  blade  of  a  knife 
across  the  grain  of  a  board,  first  with  the  blade  held  in 
a  perpendicular  position,  and  then  held  inclined  at  an 
angle  less  than  90  degrees.  It  has  been  found  that  the 
angle  of  60  degrees  in  crosscut  saws  is  the  best  for  all- 
round  work ;  and  that  in  ripsaws,  90  degrees  is  best. 

When  a  large  board  is  to  be  sawed,  it  should  be 
placed  on  sawhorses,  and  a  large  saw  should  be  used. 
If  the  piece  is  small,  it  can  be  held  in  the  vise  or  on  a 
bench  hook,  and  a  small  saw  should  be  used.  A  back- 
saw  is  the  name  of  a  small  saw  with  fine  teeth  and  a 
thin  blade,  too  thin  to  be  used  without  a  strip  of  metal 
on  the  back  to  prevent  it  buckling  or  bending.  This 
saw  is  used  in  fine  cabinet  work. 


174 


WOODWORKING 


Thick  stuff  should  be  lined  on  both  sides  and  sawed 
from  both  sides  to  insure  accurate  work. 

In  using  the  saw,  little  or  no  pressure  should  be  ex- 
erted in  a  line  parallel  with  the  edge,  or  it  will  be  difficult 
to  make  the  saw  cut  to  the  line.  It  is  best  to  place  the 
piece  to  be  cut  in  a  vertical  or  horizontal  position.  No 
steering  of  the  saw  should  be  necessary,  but  if  the  teeth 
are  longer  on  one  side  than  on  the  other,  then  the  saw 
will  run  towards  that  side.  The  practice  of  changing 
sides  will  remedy  this ;  however,  the  proper  remedy  is 
the  careful  filing  and  setting  of  the  teeth.  In  starting 
the  saw,  set  the  heel  on  the  mark  and  make  the  first 
stroke  a  pull  to  make  a  small  groove  in  which  the  saw 
will  travel  more  easily  on  the  push  stroke.  If,  in  sawing 
wood  full  of  resin,  the  saw  gums  up,  a  little  kerosene 
will  dissolve  the  gum. 

TRY-SQUARE 

The  parts  of  a  try-square  are  the  beam  and  the  blade, 

shown  in  Fig.  150. 
The  beam  may  be 
metal, 
being 


3 

BLADE. 


FIG.  150.  —  TRY-SQUARE. 


of  wood  or 
the  latter 
better ;  and  the 
blade  should  be  of 
steel,  marked  off  in- 
to inches  and  frac- 
tions of  an  inch. 
Try-squares  should 
be  tested  with  the 

large  carpenter's  square  before  beginning  work,  to  be 

sure  that  they  are  true. 


WOODWORKING  TOOLS  175 

TURNING  SAW 

The  turning  saw  consists  of  a  thin  blade  held  in  a 
frame  very  similar  to  a  bucksaw.  It  is  much  smaller, 
however,  and  has  the  handles  at  each  end  of  the  blade. 
These  handles  can  be  turned  at  any  angle  so  that  the 
blade  may  be  made  to  cut  in  any  direction.  The  nar- 
row blade  makes  it  possible  to  turn  the  saw  while 
cutting,  and  so  it  can  be  used  in  cutting  curves. 

Several  sizes  of  blades  can  be  used.  The  narrower 
the  blade,  the  smaller  the  arc  in  which  it  can  be  turned. 
When  cutting  out  fretwork,  it  is  first  necessary  to  bore 
a  hole,  then  to  take  out  the  saw  blade  from  one  handle 
by  loosening  the  turnbuckle  on  the  back,  next,  insert 
it  in  the  hole,  then  place  it  back  in  the  frame  and 
tighten  the  turnbuckle. 

SANDPAPER 

Sandpaper  is  a  tough  heavy  paper,  coated  with  glue 
on  which  sand  has  been  sprinkled.     It  is  called  garnet 
paper,  when  the  sand  is  dark  red  in  color ;    and  it  is 
called  glass  paper,  when  ground  glass  is  sprinkled  on  in- 
stead of  sand.     The  sand  is  of 
various  degrees  of  fineness  and 
is  numbered  from  oo  to  3,  the 
oo    being   the    finest.      Sand- 
paper is  an  abrasive  tool  that 
must    not    be   used    until    all 
other  tool  work  is  completed,    FlG>  ^~^v 
as  the  particles  of  sand   be- 
come embedded  in  the  pores  of  the  wood,  and  will  dull 
any  edged  tool  used  over  it.     Sandpaper  blocks  should 


176  WOODWORKING 

be  used  except  when  sanding  down  shellac  or  varnish 
in  wood  finishing.  A  square  block  of  wood  is  used  for 
plain  surfaces.  A  block  as  shown  in  Fig.  151  is  useful 
on  curved  surfaces.  It  is  made  by  gluing  a  strip  of 
leather  to  the  surface  of  a  block,  and,  when  dry,  saw- 
ing grooves  through  the  wood  down  to  the  leather,  so 
that  the  block  can  be  curved  into  a  concave  or  convex 
shape,  according  to  the  kind  of  work  to  be  done. 

Never  sandpaper  across  the  grain,  as  it  leaves 
scratches  that  become  more  ugly  as  the  wood  is  stained 
or  filled. 


LESSON  XXX 

USES  OF  THE   STEEL  SQUARE 

Frequently  farmers  wish  to  build  a  shed,  or  an  addi- 
tion to  the  barn,  or  even  to  construct  the  barn  itself. 

If  a  man  happens  to  be  handy  with  tools  and  un- 
derstands the  use  of  the  steel  square,  he  can  plan  and 
construct  most  of  his  buildings  without  hiring  expert 
carpenters. 

The  steel  square,  also  called  the  carpenter's  square, 
or  framing  square,  consists  of  two  steel  blades  at  right 
angles  to  each  other.  One,  about  24"  long  and  2"  wide,  is 
called  the  blade ;  the  other,  about  16"  long  and  i  \"  wide, 
is  called  the  tongue.  Steel  squares  are  graduated  into 
sixteenths,  eighths,  quarters,  and  halves  of  an  inch, 
and  some  into  twelfths  of  an  inch.  The  blade  and 
tongue  of  the  square  are  covered  with  graduations,  the 
meaning  of  which  will  be  given  in  the  directions  that 
are  to  follow. 

Brace  measure.  —  On  one  side  of  the  tongue  in  the 
middle  are  figures,  by  means  of  which  it  is  possible  to 
obtain  the  length  of  braces  used  in  framing.  Take,  for 
example,  the  numbers 

36 


36J5 

which  means  that  if  two  timbers  each  36"  long  are  to 
be  braced,  the  brace  will  be  $0.92"  long.     The  length 

177 


WOODWORKING 


of  the  brace  can  also  be  obtained  by  geometry.  The 
square  of  the  hypotenuse  of  a  right  triangle  is  equal 
to  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  other  two  sides.  In 


8mce  Measure. 


Ockgon  <Tco/e. 


FIG.  152.  —  STEEL  SQUARE. 


this  case  the  two  timbers  and  the  brace  form  a  right 
triangle  in  which  the  brace  forms  the  hypotenuse.  The 
two  sides  are  each  36"  long;  and,  as  the  square  of  36  is 
1296,  the  sum  of  the  two  squares  equals  2592.  The 
square  root  of  2592  is  50.92,  which  is  the  length  of  the 


USES  OF  THE   STEEL  SQUARE 


179 


brace.  Take  another  example ;  look  on  the  square  for 
the  numbers 

18! 

3° 
*4  r 

which  means  that  if  two  timbers  are  respectively  18" 
and  24"  long,  the  brace  connecting  them  will  be  30" 
long.  The  square  of  1 8  is  324  and  the  square  of  24  is 
576.  The  sum  of  these  two  is  900.  The  square  root  of 
900  is  30,  which  is  the  length  of  the  hypotenuse,  or  brace. 
By  this  rule  of  geometry  you  can  determine  the  length 
of  the  brace  for  two  timbers  of  any  length  not  given 
on  the  square.  Another  method  is  to  measure  off  two 
lines  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  representing  respec- 
tively the  lengths  of  the  timbers  to  be  braced,  then 
measure  the  distance  between  their  ends. 

The  carpenter's  method  of  finding  the  length  of  a 
brace  and  the  bevel  of  the  cuts  at  the  ends  is  as  follows. 
Suppose  the  two  timbers  are  each  36"  long;  lay  the 


laying  off  Brace. 


FIG.  153.  — LAYING  OFF  BRACES. 


square  on  the  timber  to  be  used  for  the  brace  so  that 
the  12"  mark  on  the  tongue  and  blade  are  both  on  the 


l8o  WOODWORKING 

edge  of  the  timber,  Fig.  153.  The  tongue  will  give  the 
bevel  of  the  upper  end  of  the  brace.  Mark  the  edge 
of  the  brace  at  a  where  the  blade  crosses  it.  Set  the 
square  again  so  that  the  12"  mark  comes  at  a  and  the 
12"  mark  on  the  blade  crosses  the  edge  of  the  timber  at 
b.  Again  set  the  square  in  the  same  way  and  the  blade 
will  give  the  bevel  of  the  lower  end  of  the  brace  and  the 
length  of  the  brace  at  the  same  time. 

Take  another  example  in  which  the  two  timbers  to 
be  braced  are  30"  and  38"  long.  Set  the  square  on  the 
brace  so  that  the  15"  mark  on  the  tongue  and  the  19" 
mark  on  the  blade  are  on  the  edge,  and  mark  at  a ;  set 
again  in  the  same  way  as  before  and  you  will  have  the 
length  of  the  brace  and  the  bevels  of  the  upper  and  lower 
ends. 

Board  measure.  -  -  The  unit  of  measurement  in  lum- 
ber is  the  board  foot,  which  is  a  board  i"  thick,  12" 
wide,  and  12"  long.  It  is  often  necessary  to  find  the 
number  of  board  feet  in  timbers  of  various  sizes.  The 
steel  square  can  be  used  for  this  purpose.  The  large- 
sized  figures  at  the  top  of  the  board  measure  scale  rep- 
resent the  various  widths  of  the  boards.  Under  the 
12"  mark  are  to  be  found  the  figures  8,  9,  10,  n,  13,  14, 
15.  These  figures  represent  the  various  lengths  of 
boards.  Between  the  horizontal  lines  are  the  figures 
that  indicate  board  feet,  assuming  the  boards  to  be  i" 
thick.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  figures  under  the  12" 
mark  represent  both  length  and  board  feet  of  boards 
that  are  12"  wide.  A  board  i"  thick,  12"  wide,  and  8' 
long  contains  8  board  feet.  Notice  that  the  board 
feet  of  boards  10"  wide,  whose  lengths  are  indicated  by 
the  figures  under  the  12"  mark,  are  represented  by 


USES  OF  THE   STEEL   SQUARE 


181 


the  figures  under  the  10"  mark.  For  example,  a  board 
10"  wide  and  8'  long  contains  6.8  board  feet;  and  a 
board  10"  wide  and  10'  long  contains  8.4  board  feet. 
Notice  the  number  of  board  feet  in  boards  18"  wide 
and  whose  lengths  are  8',  9',  10',  n',  13',  14',  and  15', 
respectively.  By  calculation  verify  the  correctness  of 
these  numbers  that  indicate  the  board  measure.  You 
will  notice  that  many  of  the  numbers  indicating  board 
feet  are  correct  only  to  the  nearest  tenth.  Suppose  a 
timber  is  2"  thick,  14'  long,  and  8"  wide.  Look  under  the 
12"  mark  for  14  and  then  along  the  line  for  the  figure 
8",  under  which  you  will  find  the  number  9.4.  This 
indicates  that  there  are  9.4  board  feet  in  a  board  i" 
thick,  8"  wide,  and  14'  long;  but  our  piece  is  2"  thick, 
so  it  is  necessary  to  multiply  the  9.4  by  2,  which  gives 
1 8. 8,  the  number  of  board  feet. 

You  will  notice  that  there  are  no  provisions  made  for 
a  timber  that  is  12'  long,  because  a  timber  that  long  has 
in  it  as  many  board  feet  as  the  number  of  inches  in  its 
width,  if  it  is  i"  thick. 

Octagon  scale.  —  On  one  side  of  the  tongue  of  some 
squares  will  be  found  small  round  dots,  or  short  lines, 
and  numbers  on 
them,  as  10,  20,  30, 
40,  etc.  This  con- 
stitutes the  octagon 
scale  which  is  used 
in  laying  off  octa- 
gons on  square  tim- 
bers. Suppose  the  timber  is  8 


•X. 


FIG.  154.  — LAYING  OFF  AN  OCTAGON. 

X  8".  Across  the  end 
of  the  timber  draw  two  center  lines,  Fig.  1 54,  ab  and  cd, 
at  right  angles  to  each  other.  Set  a  compass  with 


FARM    SHOP    WORK 13 


1 82  WOODWORKING 

the  points  stretching  across  as  many  places  on  the 
scale  as  the  timber  is  inches  wide  and  thick.  Placing 
one  point  of  the  compass  at  fl,  lay  off  points  e  and  /. 
Likewise,  lay  off  two  points  each  from  b,  c,  and  d. 
Draw  lines  from  these  points  and  you  have  an  octagon. 
Another  way  is  to  draw  diagonals  ab  and  cd ;  and  with 
the  compass  set  at  half  the  length  of  these  diagonals 
scribe  arcs  as  in  the  drawing,  and  then  connect  the  ends 
of  these  arcs,  thus  completing  an  octagon. 

Rafter  tables.  —  Some  squares  are  marked  with 
rafter  tables.  These  tables  are  under  the  edge  of  the 

blade  graduated  into 
twelfths.  The  twelfths 
may  mean  twelfths  of 

an  inch  or  twelfths  of 

*• *1  a  foot.      The  number 

FIG.  155.  —  PITCH  OF  RAFTER.  i  i 

above    represents    the 

run  of  the  rafter.     The  run  of  a  rafter  is  one  half  the 
width  of  the  house.     (See  Fig.  155.) 

The  following  table  gives  the  pitch  of  a  roof  with  the 
runs  and  rises  most  commonly  used  by  carpenters : 

12'  run  to  4'  rise  equals  ^  pitch. 
12'  run  to  6'  rise  equals  J  pitch. 
12'  run  to  8'  rise  equals  J  pitch. 
12'  run  to  10'  rise  equals  T\  pitch. 
12'  run  to  12'  rise  equals  J  pitch. 
12'  run  to  15'  rise  equals  f  pitch. 
12'  run  to  1 8'  rise  equals  f  pitch. 

If  the  width  of  a  building  is  22'  and  the  roof  is  \  pitch, 
the  run  is  n'  and  the  rise  is  n'.  Following  the  rafter 
table  under  ruling  \  pitch,  under  the  graduation  10  you 


USES  OF  THE  STEEL  SQUARE 


183 


will  find  the  figures  14  1-8,  which  means  that  the  rafter 
length  is  14'  ITV'. 

The  rafters  can  also  be  laid  off  with  the  square,  as  the 
braces  were.  Take  the  run  of  the  rafter  on  the  blade 
and  the  rise  on  the  tongue,  and  lay  off  the  square  on 
the  timber  as  many  times  as  the  run  on  the  square  is 
contained  in  the  run  of  the  rafter.  This  method  also 
gives  the  bevel  cuts  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  rafters. 
Suppose  the  roof  is  J  pitch,  which  means  that  the  run 
is  12'  and  the  rise  6'.  Lay  the  square  on  the  rafter  with 
the  12"  mark  of  the  tongue  and  the  6"  mark  of  the 
blade  touching  the  edge.  Mark  and  repeat  the  operation 
as  many  times  as  12"  is  contained  in  12',  or  12  times. 
You  then  will  have  the  bevel  at  the  foot  of  the  rafter. 

Hip  rafters.  —  A  hip  rafter  is  one  that  runs  from  the 
corner  of  a  building  to  the  ridgepole,  striking  the  latter 
at  a  point  as  far  from  the  end  of  the  building  as  the 
ridge  is  from  the  side  of  the  building. 

In  order  to  find  the  length  of  a  hip  rafter  it  is  neces- 
sary first  to  find  the  run.  If  the  roof  is  ^  pitch,  take 
half  the  width  of  the  building  on  both  blade  and  tongue. 
The  diagonal  between  them  is  the  run  of  the  hip  rafter. 
With  the  run  of  this  rafter  on  the  blade  and  the  rise  of 
the  roof  on  the  tongue,  get  the  length  of  the  hip  rafter 
from  the  length  of  the  diagonal  connecting  these  points. 
The  length  of  a  valley  rafter  can  be  obtained  in  the  same 
way.  All  lengths  should  be  taken  along  the  middle  of 
the  rafter. 

Jack  rafters. — A  jack  rafter  is  a  rafter  running 
from  the  plate  to  a  hip  or  valley  rafter ;  and  is  shorter 
than  other  rafters.  To  find  the  length  of  a  jack  rafter, 
first  find  its  run.  The  run  of  the  hip  rafter  is  divided 


1 84  WOODWORKING 

into  as  many  parts  as  there  are  spaces  between  the 
first  full  rafter  and  the  corner  of  the  building.  The  dis- 
tance along  the  plate  between  the  corner  and  the  first 
full  rafter  is  divided  into  the  same  number.  Set  the 
square  so  that  this  number  taken  on  the  blade  coin- 
cides with  the  edge  of  the  plate,  and  place  the  edge  of 
the  tongue  on  the  first  point  of  the  run  of  the  hip  rafter. 
The  distance  on  the  tongue  represents  the  run  of  the 
first  jack  rafter. 

With  this  distance  on  the  blade,  divide  the  rise  of 
the  common  rafter  into  as  many  divisions  as  there  are 
spaces  between  the  jack  rafters,  and  the  resulting  num- 
ber taken  on  the  tongue  gives  for  the  length  of  the  jack 
rafter  the  diagonal  of  these  two  points. 

Stairs.  —  In  finding  the  length  of  stringers  for  stairs, 
use  the  same  methods  as  in  finding  the  length  of 
braces  and  rafters.  Having  found  the  length  of  the 
stringer  by  this  means,  lay  off  on  it  the  square  with  a 
point  on  the  tongue  representing  the  riser  of  the  stairs, 
and  a  point  on  the  blade  representing  the  run,  or  tread, 
of  the  stairs. 

Repeat  this  until  the  required  number  of  stairs  has 
been  laid  out. 


LESSON  XXXI 


GLUE   IN  WOODWORKING 


Gluing  up  work.  —  In  gluing 
up  work  it  is  necessary  to  have 
a  number  of  suitable  wooden 
clamps,  as  shown  in  Fig.  156, 
and  a  long  wooden  clamp,  as  in 
Fig-  157?  or  iron  clamp,  as  in 
Fig.  158.  In  case  there  are  not 


Q  Shoulder  Spindle 


\    onoulderJaw 


\     Screw  Jaw 


y 

ft  Boc/f  Spindle 

enough  of  the  long  clamps  for  the  FlG-  156.  — WOODEN  CLAMP. 
work,  temporary  clamps  can  be  made  like  those  in  Fig. 
159.  For  small  joint  work,  iron  carnage  clamps,  like 


FIG.  157.  —  LONG  WOODEN  CLAMP. 


FIG.  158.  —  IRON  CLAMP. 
185 


1 86 

m 


WOODWORKING 


Wedges 


FIG.  1 60.  — CARRIAGE 
CLAMP. 


FIG.  161.  —  SPREADING 
GLUE  ON  EDGES. 


dJ 

FIG.  159. — TEMPORARY  CLAMPS.     •    . 

those  in  Fig.  160,  can  be  used  if  blocks 

of  wood  are  placed  under  the  jaws  to 
prevent     marring. 
In     applying    the 
glue  to  two  edges 
to  be  joined,  hold 
them  as  in  Fig.  161.     In  gluing  sur- 
faces, hold  them  as  in  Fig.  162.    The 
end  grain,  being  more  porous,  soaks 
up  the  glue,  leaving  none  to  hold  the 

joint;  therefore,  it  is  necessary 

to  put  on  one  coat  first,  and  to 

let  that  partly  dry  before  putting 

on  the  second  coat.       Mortise 

and  tenon  joints  should  be  held 

in  place  with  nails,  screws,  Or  pegs  FIG.  162.  — SPREADING  GLUE  ON 
11  -LI  nri  •    •       i  BROAD  SURFACES. 

as  well  as  with  glue,     i  his  is  also 

P  true    of   dovetail   joints. 

JJ II  In  all  work  except  veneer, 

glue  should  be  applied  to 
both  surfaces  sparingly, 
as  all  surplus  glue  must 
be  rubbed  or  squeezed 

FIG.    163.  —  CORRECT    AND    INCORRECT  i     r  t      •    • 

METHODS  OF  CLAMPING  GLUED  SURFACES.      OUt  before  the  joint  sets. 


incorrect. 


correct 


GLUE  IN  WOODWORKING 


187 


FlG-  164.  —  STRENGTHENING  A  JOINT  BY 
MEANS  OF  GLUE  BLOCKS. 


An  absolutely  smooth  surface  does  not  glue  so  well  as 
a  rough  one,  as  the  glue  does  not  enter  the  pores  so 
readily  ;  and  for  this  reason,  sawed  mortise  and  tenon 
and  halved  joints  are  stronger  than  those  trimmed  with 
the  chisel.  On  some  kinds  of  wood,  as  birch,  the  glue 
will  appear  dark,  thereby  making  the  joint  conspicuous. 
The  only  way  to  avoid  this  is  to  make  the  joint  come 
in  an  inconspicuous  place  if  possible. 

After  a  glued  joint  has  been  clamped  in  place,  all  sur- 
plus glue  that  has  been 
squeezed  out  should  be 
wiped  off  with  a  cloth 
wet  in  warm  water,  as  it 
is  easier  to  remove  it 

,  .  ,  r         •     i 

this  Way  than  after  It  has 

hardened.     Do  not  wash 

it  off,  as  the  water  would  enter  the  joint  and  weaken 

the  glue. 

Absorption  of  water.  —  According  to  its  quality,  glue 
will  absorb  a  certain  amount  of  water.  Good  glue 
will  absorb  more  water  than  poor  glue.  Glue  having  an 
absorption  test  of  50,  means  that  one  pound  of  glue  will 
absorb  50  ounces  of  water  ;  this  will  make  glue  too  thin 
for  cabinet  work,  but  just  right  for  sizing  or  cardboard 
work.  In  order  to  get  a  good  consistency  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  reduce  the  amount  of  water  about  30  per  cent. 

Cooking.  --  When  glue  has  been  soaked  in  cold  water 
over  night,  it  is  ready  for  cooking,  which  is  done  in  a 
gluepot,  or  double  boiler.  No  direct  heat  should  come  in 
contact  with  the  glue,  or  it  will  burn  and  stick.  The 
cooking  should  continue  until  enough  of  the  water  has 
been  evaporated  to  make  it  of  the  proper  consistency. 


1 88  WOODWORKING 

If  the  cooking  is  continued  very  long,  the  quality  of 
the  glue  will  deteriorate.  New  glue  should  be  made  for 
each  day's  work,  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  obtained. 
Old  glue  will  hold,  but  not  so  well  as  fresh  stock.  Glue 
that  is  held  to  the  cooking  point  for  a  half  day  will 
lose  half  of  its  holding  power.  Being  soluble  in  water, 
glue  will  not  hold  if  kept  in  a  damp  place  or  if  frequently 
wet  with  water.  Soaked  glue  will  dissolve  more  readily 
than  dry  glue,  and  ground  glue  will  dissolve  more  readily 
than  glue  in  lumps.  Glue  that  has  been  cooked  with- 
out previous  soaking  is  apt  to  have  hard  lumps  in  it. 

Glue  brushes  are,  of  course,  not  fastened  with  glue, 
but  with  shellac,  cement,  or  rubber.  Rubber-set 
brushes  are  the  best  fo'r  all  purposes,  as  they  are  not 
soluble  in  any  of  the  solvents  usually  used,  and  so  will 
not  lose  hairs,  as  the  others  do.  In  these  brushes  the 
bristles  are  set  in  liquid  rubber  and  the  rubber  is  then 
vulcanized,  or  made  hard,  by  steam  heat.  The  glue 
brush  should  be  soaked  in  hot  water  some  time  before 
using,  and  should  be  taken  from  the  gluepot  and  washed 
in  hot  water  after  using.  In  gluing  large  surfaces,  use 
thinner  glue  than  when  gluing  small  joints ;  for  if  the 
surfaces  are  cold,  the  glue  will  chill  before  the  pieces  can 
be  put  in  place,  and  a  poor  joint  will  result ;  and  if  the 
boards  are  too  hot,  they  will  cause  the  glue  to  dry  be- 
fore the  joining  can  be  done. 

Purchasing  glue.  -  -  The  purchase  of  good  glue  is  a 
matter  of  great  importance.  The  average  woodworker 
should  purchase  glue  from  professional  woodworkers,  to 
be  sure  of  obtaining  as  good  a  grade  as  that  supplied  to 
the  trade.  Buy  from  a  cabinet  maker,  pattern  maker, 
or  a  planing  mill,  and  you  will  get  the  best  results. 


LESSON  XXXII 
FILING  SAWS  AND  GRINDING  EDGE  TOOLS 

FILING   SAWS 

Filing  a  saw  is  a  very  difficult  operation,  and  the 
novice  should  read  the  directions  very  carefully  before 
beginning,  and  in  the  first  trial  he  should  take  a  rather 
coarse  saw,  such  as  a  bucksaw. 

Remember  that  each  tooth  is  a  knife  or  a  chisel, 
and  if  all  teeth  are  of  the  same  length,  each  will  do  an 
equal  amount  of  work  in  cutting ;  but  if  one  tooth  is 
longer  than  the  others,  it  will  do  more  than  its  share 
of  work  and  will  be  strained  so  that  it  is  liable  to  break. 

The  space  between  two  teeth  is  called  the  throat ; 
it  serves  to  carry  out  the  sawdust  as  fast  as  made  by 
the  teeth.  Different  kinds  of  wood  require  teeth  vary- 
ing in  size,  shape,  and  style  of  filing.  To  get  the  best 
results,  there  should  be  a  different  kind  of  saw  for  each 
variety  of  work  to  be  done  ;  but  as  this  is  impracticable, 
it  will  be  better  to  dress  the  saws 
in  such  a  way  as  to  make  them 
do  as  great  a  variety  of  work  as 
possible. 

The  blades  of  all  saws  filed  FIG.  165.— POSITION  OF  FILE 
should  be  held  in  a  vise  perpen- 

dicularly,  and  the  file  should  be  held  horizontally,  as  in 
Fig.  165.     If  the  front  and  back  of  the  tooth  are  filed 

189 


190  WOODWORKING 

straight  across  with  the  file  held  horizontally  and  at 
right  angles  to  the  edge  of  the  blade,  the  filing  will 
produce  a  perfect  chisel  edge.  If  all  the  teeth  are  filed 
from  one  side,  a  wire  edge  will  be  produced  on  the  op- 
posite side,  which  will  cause  the  saw  to  run  or  saw 
crooked,  so  it  will  be  better  to  file  every  alternate 
tooth  from  one  side  and  the  others  from  the  opposite 
side. 

Ripsaws.  —  The  teeth  of  a  ripsaw  are  chisel-shaped, 
and  each  tooth  cuts  off  a  small  piece  of  wood  across 
the  grain.  They  should  be  filed  across  the  saw  or  at 
an  angle  of  90  degrees  with  the  edge. 

The  front  of  a  ripsaw  tooth  is  perpendicular  and  the 
back  is  inclined  at  an  angle  of  60  degrees  from  the  per- 
pendicular front  of  the  tooth. 

The  teeth  of  a  ripsaw  should  be  set  slightly  to  insure 
easy  and  smooth  work.  Softwoods  require  larger  teeth 
and  more  set  to  prevent  binding. 

Crosscut  saws.  —  In  crosscut  saws,  the  teeth  cut 
the  fibers  of  the  wood  at  right  angles  to  their  length, 
and  therefore  should  be  shaped  like  the  point  of  a  knife 
blade.  Considerable  care  should  be  taken  to  give  the 
tooth  the  most  desirable  shape.  Remember  that  the 
sharper  the  tooth  the  weaker  it  is,  the  faster  it  will 

JL  N  cut,  and  the  faster  it  will  become  dull. 

/)  v\  |  Therefore  a  tooth  intended  for  very  soft 

//  K  wood,  as  basswood,  redwood,  or  butter- 

nut,  should  be  very  sharp  ;  while  that 

FIG.  166.— A  SHARP  intended  for  white  oak,  hard  maple,  or 

TOOTH.  111111  A  i 

osage  orange  should  be  blunt.  A  tooth 
shaped  as  in  Fig.  166  will  do  very  well  for  very  soft 
woods.  The  bevel,  or  fleam,  has  a  very  wide  front  and 


FILING  SAWS  AND  GRINDING   EDGE  TOOLS 


191 


in 


It  also 
back, 


FIG. 


167.  —  A  MODERATELY 
SHARP  TOOTH. 


back,  making  a  very  sharp  and  weak  tooth, 
has  a  greater  rake,  or  angle,  in  front  than 
which  insures  fast  cutting  in  soft- 
woods, but  in  hardwoods  this  rake 
causes  the  saw  to  buckle  and  hang 
up.  A  tooth  like  Fig.  167  will  be 
suitable  for  moderately  hard  woods. 
It  has  a  moderate  fleam  in  front  and  back,  with  the 
front  and  back  rake  equal  and  at  60  degrees.  A  tooth 
shaped  like  Fig.  168  will  answer  for  very 
hard  woods.  It  has  a  narrow  fleam  in 
front  and  no  fleam  on  the  back  ;  and  the 
FIG.  168.— A  BLUNT  rake  behind  is  a  trifle  greater  than 
that  in  front.  This  tooth  will  stay 
sharp  when  used  on  hard  woods. 

Jointing.  —  Always    joint    the    saw    before    setting 
or  filing  it.     Joint- 
ing means  filing  the 
points    down    even. 
A    good    jointer    is 

shown    in    Fig.     169.  FIG.  169.  — A  SAW  JOINTER. 

It  is  a  block  of  wood  cut  out  so  that  a  flat  file  can  be 

inserted    and   the   whole    run   over    the    edge    of  the 

saw. 

Setting  is  done  by  means  of  a  saw  set 
which  turns  the  points  of  the  teeth 
alternately  right  and  left.  This  causes 
the  saw  to  cut  a  kerf  wider  than  the 
blade  of  the  saw  and  thus  enables  it  to 
incorrect  correct  move  freely  through  the  wood.  A  con- 

FIG.  170.  — SETTING   siderably  larger  set  is  required  for  saws 

THE  TEETH  OF  A  J  .  .       , 

SAW.  to  be  used  on  sort  green  woods  than 


Setting. 


192  WOODWORKING 

hard  dry  woods  Do  not  try  to  set  the  entire  tooth, 
but  only  the  point.  (Fig.  170.) 

Filing.  —  When  the  saw  has  been  jointed  and  set, 
then  proceed  to  file  it.  In  filing  a  crosscut  saw,  hold 
the  file  horizontally,  and  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees 
with  the  edge  of  the  blade,  when  filing  a  tooth  repre- 
sented by  Fig.  166.  For  filing  a  tooth  shown  by  Fig. 
167,  hold  the  file  horizontally  with  the  blade  and  at  an 
angle  greater  than  45  degrees  with  the  edge.  For  a 
tooth  shown  by  Fig.  168,  hold  the  file  horizontally  and 
at  an  angle  of  about  60  degrees  for  the  front  fleam,  and 
at  an  angle  of  90  degrees  for  the  back  of  the  tooth. 
Begin  at  the  heel  of  the  saw  and  file  towards  the  point. 

Side  dressing. -- When  the  saw  has  been  filed,  it 
should  be  side  dressed  by  laying  it  flat  on  the  bench 
and  once  or  twice  rubbing  an  oilstone  over  the  teeth. 
If  you  are  to  saw  green  or  soft  wood,  side  dressing  is 
unnecessary ;  but  if  you  are  to  saw  hard  wood,  con- 
siderable side  dressing  will  be  advantageous,  as  it  will 
mean  a  very  smooth  cut,  in  fact,  smoother  than  one 
can  plane  the  end  grain  with  the  block  plane. 

GRINDING  EDGE  TOOLS 

The  plane  bit  and  chisel  should  be  sharpened  for  the 
kind  of  work  they  are  to  do.  The  harder  the  wood, 
the  blunter  must  be  the  edge  in  order  to  keep  sharp 
against  the  wear  of  the  hard  grain.  On  soft  wood, 
a  longer  bevel  can  be  used;  this  will  cut  better,  and 
because  of  the  softness  of  the  wood  will  wear  longer. 

The  chisel  and  plane  bit  should  be  sharpened  in 
the  same  manner,  and  so  directions  given  for  one  will 


FILING  SAWS  AND  GRINDING   EDGE  TOOLS          193 

apply  to  the  other.  The  angle  at  which  these  tools 
should  be  sharpened  varies  with  mechanics  from  20 
to  30  degrees.  We  may  take  23  degrees  as  satisfactory, 
and  sharpen  all  tools  at  this  angle.  When  it  is  necessary 
to  use  the  tool  on  some  hard  wood,  it  can  be  honed  on 
an  oilstone  to  a  greater  angle  with  little  trouble,  and 
the  necessity  of  grinding  down  to  a  new  bevel  over  the 
entire  thickness  of  the  tool  is  avoided.  The  first  step 
in  sharpening  these  tools  is  to  use  the  grindstone  or 
emery  wheel.  Water  should  be  used  on  either  stone 
for  two  reasons:  (i)  it  keeps  the  tool  from  getting  so 
hot  as  to  draw  the  temper;  (2)  it  carries  away  the  bits 
of  steel  and  stone  that  are  worn  off,  leaving  a  new  sur- 
face for  grinding.  A  soft  stone  is  better  than  a  hard 
one,  because  it  wears  away  instead  of  glazing  over, 
thus  always  presenting  a  new  and  sharp  surface  to 
the  tool.  The  tool  should  be  examined  frequently, 
and  some  device  should  be  used  to  insure  replacing 
the  tool  on  the  stone  at  the  same  angle  at  which  it  was 
before  it  was  lifted.  Grind  the  edge  down  until  it  is 
square  and  sharp.  Test  for  squareness  with  the  try- 
square,  arid  test  for  the  desired  angle  by  the  use  of  a 
template  ground  at  the  proper  angle.  When  the  bevel 
has  been  properly  ground,  it  should  be  honed  on  an 
oilstone. 

The  honing  can  be  done  in  one  of  two  ways,  either 
by  a  forward  and  backward  motion,  or  by  a  circular 
motion.  Either  method  will  wear  down  the  oilstone 
unevenly  at  the  ends  if  it  is  not  a  round  stone. 

The  grinding  and  honing  will  leave  a  wire  edge, 
which  will  drop  off  in  time  if  the  tool  is  reversed  and 
honed  on  the  flat  side  with  the  flat  side  flat  on  the  stone. 


194  WOODWORKING 

Do  not  raise  it,  or  a  second  bevel  will  be  started  on  that 
side  and  it  will  be  impossible  to  do  good  work  when 
using  the  tool. 

Test  the  sharpness  of  the  tool  by  drawing  it  across 
the  thick  of  the  thumb,  to  see  it  if  takes  hold  of  the 
callus  there.  If  not,  then  it  is  not  sharp  ;  but  if  sharp, 
it  will  take  hold  enough  to  catch  the  skin,  and  care 
must  be  taken  or  a  deep  cut  will  result.  When  the 
honing  has  been  completed,  draw  the  corners  across 
the  hone  once  or  twice  to  round  the  square  corners. 
This  will  prevent  the  corners  making  a  score  or  mark  on 
the  surface  of  the  wood  when  it  is  planed. 

A  gouge  must  be  sharpened  with  slips,  which  are 
small  oilstones  tapering  from  edge  to  edge,  and  with 
the  edges  rounded  instead  of  square. 

Carving  and  turning  tools  are  sharpened  with  slips 
in  the  same  way  as  the  gouges  are. 

Oilstones.  —  Oilstones  are  of  two  kinds,  —  natural  and 
artificial.  The  most  common  natural  stones  are  the 
Washita  and  the  Arkansas,  which  are  very  fine  and 
very  hard.  They  are  also  very  expensive,  too  much  so 
fo4T  use  in  any  ordinary  work  shop.  These  stones  give 
a  very  fine  edge  on  tools,  but  require  a  great  deal  of 
time  and  work  in  producing  it. 

Emery  and  corundum,  which  are  nearly  pure  forms 
of  alumina,  have  been  extensively  used  as  abrasives. 
They  are  extremely  hard,  but  not  so  hard  as  the 
diamond,  being  9  in  the  scale  of  hardness,  while  the 
diamond  is  10.  If  the  diamond  were  not  so  scarce,  it 
would  drive  all  othec  abrasives  out  of  the  market. 

To  prevent  oilstones  being  broken,  they  should  be 
mounted  in  a  box  made  for  that  purpose.  As  the  name 


FILING  SAWS  AND  GRINDING  EDGE  TOOLS         195 

indicates,  oil  should  be  used  on  these  stones  when 
sharpening  tools.  Mineral  oils  are  not  recommended, 
but  some  light  animal  oil  that  will  not  gum  should 
be  used  sparingly,  and  the  surplus  wiped  off  when 
through.  Kerosene  is  useful  after  the  stone  has  been 
used  quite  a  time  with  other  oils,  and  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts  glycerin  and  alcohol  will  make  a  stone 
take  hold  even  after  it  seems  to  be  glazed.  Soaking 
in  dilute  sulphuric  acid  or  lye  will  also  clean  out  a  stone 
and  make  it  work  after  all  other  efforts  have  proved 
useless.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  wear  down  an  oil- 
stone evenly,  for  most  of  the  wear  comes  in  the  middle, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  use  the  extreme  ends  without  the 
tool  slipping  off  and  thus  injuring  its  edge. 

Fig.  171  shows  a  method  of  making  a  box  with  two 
pieces  of  hard  wood  set  upright  at  the  ends,  and  the 
tops  flush  with  the  top  of  the  oilstone. 


FIG.  171.  —  Box  TO  HOLD  OILSTONE. 

With  this  arrangement,  it  is  possible  to  use  the  stone 
clear  to  the  ends,  thus  wearing  it  down  evenly.  Round 
stones  have  the  advantage  in  this  respect,  for  no  part  of 
them  is  subjected  to  more  wear  than  any  other  part. 
Oilstones  with  an  uneven  surface  can  be  trued  up  by 
rubbing  them  on  sandpaper  or  on  a  smooth  flat  board 
over  which  has  been  sprinkled  sand  and  water.  Of 
the  artificial  stones  the  carborundum  is  the  best  be- 


196  WOODWORKING 

cause  of  its  rapid  cutting,  its  hardness,  and  nonglazing 
qualities. 

Carborundum  is  cleaned  by  washing  in  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid.  To  make  wheels,  stones,  etc.,  the  carborun- 
dum is  mixed  with  some  binding  material  and  placed 
in  a  hydraulic  press  and  then  vitrified.  Carborundum 
will  do  work  better  and  more  quickly  than  emery  or 
corundum ;  and  because  it  saves  time  and  labor,  it  is 
in  great  demand. 


BLACKSMITHING 

The  farmer  is  called  upon  to  exercise  a  great  deal  of 
ingenuity,  and  to  adapt  himself  to  meet  emergencies 
perhaps  more  than  a  man  in  any  other  line  of  work. 
There  are  so  many  chances  on  the  farm  for  small  leaks 
in  the  income,  so  many  trifling  expenses  connected  with 
the  upkeep  of  tools  and  appliances,  that  in  the  aggregate 
they  amount  to  a  good  deal,  and  may  mean  the  dif- 
ference between  a  profit  and  a  loss  at  the  end  of  the  year. 
The  farmer  must  know  something  about  a  great  many 
trades  as  well  as  a  great  deal  about  agriculture.  Any 
information  and  skill  he  may  acquire  will  increase 
his  earning  power  and  saving  power,  and  so  will  in- 
crease the  profits  of  farming.  It  is  not  generally 
considered  on  the  farm  that  time  is  an  all-important 
element ;  but  when  some  part  of  a  threshing  machine 
breaks,  throwing  out  of  work  a  dozen  men  while  it  is 
taken  to  town  to  be  mended  by  a  blacksmith,  the  farmer 
is  impressed  with  the  fact  that  time  is  money.  With 
a  few  tools  and  a  little  instruction  and  practice,  any 
farmer  can  mend  nearly  any  break  that  is  likely  to 
occur  in  the  ordinary  work  of  the  farm.  If  careful 
records  be  kept  of  such  items,  it  will  soon  be  found 
that  the  saving  in  time  will  pay  for  the  outlay  for 
tools.  Besides  these  economic  considerations,  it  is  a 
well  known  fact  that  blacksmithing  has  a  peculiar 
fascination  for  boys. 

FARM    SHOP   WORK — 14          197 


LESSON  XXXIII 

THE   FORGE  AND  ANVIL 

The  forge.  -  -  The  blacksmith's  forge  consists  of 
a  bowl-shaped  hearth  with  an  opening  in  the  middle 
of  the  bottom,  called  the  tuyere.  Through  the  tuyere 
comes  the  blast  of  air  forced  either  with  a  bellows  or 
rotary  fan. 

The  tuyere  should  provide  openings  for  the  blast 
and  at  the  same  time  should  be  protected  in  such  a  way 
as  to  prevent  any  quantity  of  cinders  from  falling  into 
it,  thus  clogging  and  interfering  with  the  blast.  There 
should  be  an  opening  in  the  lower  part  of  the  pipe 
leading  to  the  forge,  so  the  cinders  can  be  cleaned  out 
from  time  to  time. 

A  portable  fan-blast  forge  of  light  construction  is 
suitable  for  farm  work.  One  in  which  the  fan  is  operated 
by  a  crank  and  a  train  of  gears  is  the  most  convenient. 
The  farmer  should  have  a  tool  house,  or  shop  where  all 
repair  work  can  be  done.  In  this  place  should  be  the 
work  bench  and  tools,  the  sewing  jack  for  the  repair 
of  harness,  and  the  forge. 

Coal.  -  -  The  best  soft  coal  should  be  used  for  forging. 
Good  forge  coal  crumbles  easily  in  the  hands  and  pro- 
duces very  few  clinkers  when  burned.  Avoid  coal 
that  breaks  into  layers  and  is  of  a  dull  appearance,  as 
that  is  steam  coal  and  is  not  so  good  for  blacksmithing 

198 


THE  FORGE  AND  ANVIL  199 

as  the  other.  Coke  and  charcoal  are  sometimes  used 
for  forging,  but  not  generally. 

Coking.  —  Clean  out  the  bowl  of  the  forge  and  start 
a  fire  with  shavings  and  chips  of  wood,  and  cover  with 
some  coke  left  over  from  the  last  fire. 

If  there  is  no  coke,  then  cover  with  green  coal  and 
continue  the  blast  until  a  good  fire  is  burning.  Next 
produce  coke  by  covering  the  fire  with  green  coal  that 
has  been  wet  with  water,  and  pack  the  coal  over  the 
fire  to  prevent  the  blast  from  coming  through. 

In  forming  coke,  the  gases  are  driven  out  of  the  coal, 
leaving  nothing  but  carbon  and  ash.  The  value  of 
coke  over  coal  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  can  be  brought  to 
a  higher  degree  of  heat  and  it  is  free  from  smoke  and 
flame.  Coke  is  a  nonconductor  of  heat  and  so  con- 
fines the  heat  of  the  fire  to  a  small  area.  During  the 
forging,  the  fire  should  be  banked  around  on  all  sides 
with  wet  green  coal,  which  will  gradually  turn  to  coke. 
Keep  the  fire  free  from  clinkers  and  supply  fresh  coke 
from  time  to  time.  When  it  is  desired  to  keep  a  fire 
for  any  length  of  time,  bank  it  with  wet  coal  and  it 
will  keep,  gradually  changing  the  coal  to  coke. 

Blast.  - —  The  amount  of  air  forced  into  the  fire  has 
much  to  do  with  the  work.  Enough  air  must  be  forced 
in  to  cause  the  fire  to  burn  with  a  great  deal  of  heat, 
but  if  more  air  is  forced  in  than  can  be  used  in  burning 
the  coke,  the  excess  is  a  detriment  to  good  forging, 
especially  to  good  welding.  This  oversupply  of  air 
produces  an  oxidizing  fire,  which  means  that  the  excess 
of  oxygen  attacks  the  iron  and  causes  it  to  scale  or  burn. 
A  great  deal  of  scale  forming  on  the  iron  indicates 
that  too  much  air  is  being  used,  and  the  iron  is  being 


200  BLACKSMITHING 

burned  as  well  as  heated.  When  brilliant  scintillating 
sparks  fly  out  of  the  fire,  it  means  that  the  iron  is  burn- 
ing very  rapidly,  and  will  in  a  short  time  be  ruined. 

The  anvil.  -  -  The  blacksmith's  anvil  is  made  of  cast- 
iron  or  soft  steel,  on  the  upper  surface  of  which  has 
been  welded  a  flat  piece  of  tool  steel  which  has  been 
hardened  and  tempered.  The  pointed  end  is  called  the 
horn,  and  is  left  soft.  A  small  fla't  surface  between  the 
horn  and  the  hard  surface  is  also  left  soft  for  the  pur- 
pose of  cutting  off  stock  without  injuring  the  edged 
tools.  The  anvil  may  be  placed  so  that  the  horn  points 
to  the  right  or  to  the  left,  but  it  will  be  found  more 
convenient  to  have  it  pointing  toward  the  right. 


LESSON  XXXIV 


STAPLE 

STOCK 
i  piece  iron  \"  round,  4"  long 

TOOLS 

Hammer 
Tongs 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Drawing  out. 

2.  Bending. 

i.    Drawing    out.  —  Whenever    iron    is    reduced    in 
thickness,  or  lengthened,  it  is  said  to  be  drawn  out. 
This  piece  of  iron  is 
to  be  drawn  out  to  a  I'"1* 

point  at  both  ends. 
The  drawn  part  is 
to  be  left  square. 
The  piece  When 
drawn  out  will  be 
about  5"  long.  The 
only  tools  required 

are  the  hammer  and       FlG   I72._ DRAWING  OUT  IRON  FOR  STAPLE. 

tongs  for  this  opera- 
tion. 

201 


202 


BLACKSMITHING 


FIG.  173.  —  BALL  PEEN  HAMMER. 


The  blacksmith  will  have  use  for  several  kinds  and 
weights  of  hammers,  but  the  one  most  commonly  used 

is  called  the  ball  peen 
hammer  (Fig.  173). 
This  form  of  hammer 
may  be  had  in  vari- 
ous weights,  but  one 
weighing  ij  pounds 
is  right  for  most  of 
the  work. 

The  tongs  neces- 
sary for  this  exercise  will  be  more  commonly  used  than 
any  other  form.  They  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  174,  which 
gives  a  side  view,  and  an  end  view  of  the  jaws  grooved 
for  holding  round  stock. 

In  drawing  out,  first  heat  one  end  of  the  iron,  holding 
it  with  the  tongs  in  the  center  of  the  fire,  and  turn  on 
the    blast.     Take    it 
out  from  time  to  time 
to  examine.  It  should 
be     heated     brighter 
than  a  red,  but  not  so 

hot  as  to  burn  or  sparkle.  When  sufficiently  hot,  with- 
draw and  hammer  for  a  distance  of  about  i"  from  the 
end,  forcing  the  metal  to  flow  toward  the  end.  Turn 
the  piece  quarter  round  and  hammer  toward  the  end 
in  the  same  way,  hammering  more  at  the  end  than 
farther  up  so  as  to  make  it  smaller  there.  This  will 
make  it  square  and  smaller  than  the  original  diameter. 
Continue  the  hammering  toward  the  end  until  it  be- 
comes pointed.  When  drawing  the  end  down  to  a  fine 
point,  it  is  necessary  to  hold  the  end  at  the  edge  of  the 


FIG.  174.— TONGS  FOR  ROUND  STOCK. 


STAPLE 


203 


anvil  so  as  not  to  strike  the 
anvil  (Fig.  175).  If  you 
strike  the  anvil  instead  of 
the  iron,  the  hammer  will 
rebound  with  considerable 
force  and  might  strike  your 

face,     besides    splintering    off  FrG .  I75. -DRAWING  OUT  THE  POINT 

some    chips    from    the    edge  OF  THE  STAPLE- 

of  the  hammer.     Draw  out  the  other  end  in  the  same 

way.  In  drawing  out, 
take  as  few  heats  as 
possible,  but  do  not 
continue  hammering 
after  the  iron  has  be- 
come black  cold,  for  it 
will  surely  split  if  you 

do.     If  the  iron  is  not  heated  hot  enough,  it  will  also 

split. 

2.    Bending.  —  When  both  ends  have  been  drawn  out, 

heat  the  iron  and  bend  it  at 

the   middle   point,   holding  it 

as  in   Fig.    176,    and    striking 

not    above    the    horn    of   the 

anvil,    but    just    beyond    it. 

As  the   iron    bends,    continue 

striking     it,     holding 

Fig.    177. 


FIG.  176.  —  BENDING  STAPLE  AT  MIDDLE 
POINT. 


as     in 


FIG.  177.  — BENDING  THE  STAPLE 
OVER  THE  HORN  OF  THE  ANVIL. 


LESSON  XXXV 

GATE  HOOK 

STOCK 
I  piece  of  iron  f  "  square,  9^"  long 

TOOLS 
Hammer  Tongs  Flatter 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Drawing  out  ends. 

2.  Forming  shoulders. 

3.  Bending. 

4.  Twisting. 

1.  Drawing   out   ends.  —  Draw   out   the   two   ends 
\"  square,  one  of  them  2f"  long,  the  other  3"  long, 
leaving  \\"  in  the  middle  full  size. 

Always  draw  out  stock  square  before  rounding  off, 
so  as  to  prevent  the  iron  splitting.  When  the  ends  are 
drawn  out  square  and  to  the  size  required,  round  off 
the  corners,  making  as  smooth  as  possible.  The  end 
drawn  out  3"  long  should  be  pointed. 

2.  Forming  the  shoulders.  —  In  forming  the  shoul- 
ders,   heat    the    iron    and    place    on    the    anvil    at    a 
point  2f"  from  one  end.     Place  the  flatter  or  set  ham- 
mer directly  over  the  edge  of  the  anvil  and  hammer 
down  approximately  to  size.     Turn  the  iron  one  quarter 
round  and  repeat  the  operation.     Treat  the  other  end 

204 


GATE  HOOK 


205 


in  the  same  way.     Hammer  down  the  corners  and  make 
smooth  and  round,  using  the  flatter  with  the  hammer. 
If  you  are  not  careful  in  placing  the  iron  on  the  anvil 


p 


// 


9|" 


FIG.  178.  — STEPS  IN  MAKING  A  GAT^  HOOK. 

or  the  flatter  directly  over  the  edge  of  the  anvil,  you 
will  not  get  a  good  shoulder.  If  you  do  not  use  the 
edge  of  the  anvil  as  well  as  the  flatter,  the  iron  will  be 
reduced  only  on  one  side,  or  will  be  off  center. 

The  flatter,  or  set  hammer,  is  not  intended  to  be 


206  BLACKSMITHING 

used  as  a  hammer,  but  is  shaped  somewhat  like  one; 
and  is  used  where  the  hammer  marks  would  mar  the  iron. 
It  is  impossible  to  hammer  hot  iron  so  carefully  that 
no  marks*show,  and  when  these  marks  are  objectionable, 
the  flatter  or  some  similar  tool  is  used. 

3.  Bending.  --  Bend   the   eye  of  the   hook  first,  as 
shown  in  the  drawing,  by  forcing  the  end  down  square 
at  the  shoulder,  and  then  hammering  it  around  the  horn 
of  the  anvil  to  a  circle  having  an  eye  \"  in  diameter. 

Be  careful  not  to  mar  the  iron  with  hammer  marks. 
Next  bend  the  hook  in  the  same  way  except  that  the  point 
is  not  brought  around  in  the  form  of  a  circle,  but  straight 
up,  and  then  curve  the  point  out  a  trifle.  The  bending 
of  the  hook  should  be  in  the  same  direction  as  the  eye. 

4.  Twisting.  —  In  twisting  the  shank  of  the  hook, 
heat  it  to  a  bright  yellow  heat,  being  careful  not  to 
burn  it,  as  the  smaller  the  piece  of  iron,  the  more  quickly 
it  heats  and  burns.     Quickly  place  it  in  the  vise,  and 
with  the  tongs  placed  as  in  the  figure,  twist  one  half 
around  and,  taking  a  second  hold,  twist  the  rest  of  the 
way  around.     Straighten  out  on  the  anvil.     The  posi- 
tion of  the  hook  in  the  vise  and  the  place  of  the  tongs 
on  the  hook  will  determine  the  kind  of  twist  that  will 
be  given.     The  closer  the  tongs  are  to  the  anvil,  the 
shorter  the  twist. 

In  case  the  iron  for  the  gate  hook  must  be  cut  from 
a  piece  two  or  three  feet  long,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
determine  what  length  of  stock  to  cut  off.  To  do  this, 
take  a  piece  of  copper  wire  and  bend  it  with  the  fingers 
the  exact  shape  of  the  gate  hook  that  is  desired.  Cut 
ofF  the  wire  and  straighten  it  out.  This  gives  the  length 
required. 


LESSON  XXXVI 

BOLT 

STOCK 
I  piece  iron  \"  round,  7"  long 

TOOLS 
Hammer  Tongs  Heading  tool 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Upsetting  the  head. 

2.  Heading  on  the  heading  tool. 

3.  Squaring  the  head. 

4.  Chamfering  the  corners. 

i.  Upsetting  the  head. -- The  size  of  the  head  of 
the  bolt  bears  a  definite  relation  to  the  diameter  of 
the  bolt.  The  formula  is  H  =  ij  X  d  -f  J.  H  is 
the  short  diameter  of  the  head,  or,  as  it  is  called,  the 
distance  across  the  flats,  d  is  the  diameter  of  the  bolt, 
\"  in  this  case.  The  formula  in  this  case  would  read  — 

H=  iixi"  +  i  =  f". 

The  thickness  of  the  bolt  head  is  always  equal  to 
the  diameter  of  the  bolt. 

Upsetting  is  the  process  of  shortening  the  length  of 
a  piece  of  iron  and  increasing  its  width,  thickness,  or 
diameter.  Usually  a  piece  is  upset  by  holding  firmly 

207 


208 


BLACKSMITHING 


in  the  tongs,  with  the  ends  of  the  tongs  resting  against 
the  leg,  and  hammering  on  the  hot  end. 

The  hottest  part  of  the  iron  will  be  upset  most,  and 
as  the  end  is  usually  the  hottest  part,  it  will  be  upset 
the  most,  and  too  much  sometimes.  This  can  be 
guarded  against  by  cooling  the  tip  end  by  dipping  in 


Heading  Tool 


FIG.  179.  —  STEPS  IN  MAKING  A  BOLT. 


water  just  before  upsetting.  This  will  cause  the  part 
still  hot  to  be  upset,  but  not  the  end.  Several  heats 
will  be  necessary,  and  the  bar  should  be  straightened 
between  heats. 

2.  Heading  on  the  heading  tool.  —  After  upsetting 
to  a  diameter  of  about  i",  place  the  bolt  in  the  heading 
tool,  which  should  be  placed  flat  side  down  on  the  face 
of  the  anvil,  allowing  the  bolt  to  extend  down  through 
the  square  hole  in  the  end  of  the  anvil.  Hammer  the 
head  down  to  a  thickness  of  \"  and  smooth  with  the 
flatter. 


BOLT  209 

3.  Squaring  the  head.  —  In  squaring  up  the  head, 
heat  to  a  white  heat,  and  hammer  alternately  on  the 
four  sides,  taking  pains  that  each  of  the  four  sides  is 
the  same  distance  from  the  shank  of  the  bolt,  or  you 
will  likely  have  a  bolt  head  that  is  off  center,  or  lop- 
sided.    The  metal  will  be  forced  out  over  the  head, 
so  it  will  be  necessary  to  place  it  in  the  heading  tool 
several  times  to  hammer  it  back  into  shape. 

Make  the  head  the  required  size,  f "  square  and  \" 
thick. 

4.  Chamfering   the   corners. -- The    corners   of  the 
upper  surface,  if  left  as  they  are  now,  would  catch  the 
clothing,  and  cut  and  mar  anything  that  happened  to 
hit  them.     To  prevent  this  as  well  as  to  make  them 
more  sightly,  they  should  be  chamfered  off.     Place  in 
the  heading  tool  and  hammer  down  the  corners  slightly, 
being  sure  that  you  do  not  destroy  the  squareness  of 
the  head. 


LESSON  XXXVII 


CHAIN  AND  HOOK 

STOCK 

I  pc.  iron  f"  round,  10"  long,  for  link 
i  pc.  iron  f"  X  i",  7"  long,  for  hook 
i  pc.  iron  f "  round,  10"  long,  for  ring 


TOOLS 

Hammer 

Fullers 

Punch 

OPERATIONS 

For  Link 

For  Ring 

For  Hook 

I. 

2. 

3- 
4° 

Measuring. 
Bending. 
Scarfing. 
Welding. 

i.    Measuring. 
2.    Scarfing. 
3.    Bending. 
4.    Welding. 

i. 

2. 

3- 
4- 

5- 

Measuring. 
Fullering. 
Punching  eye. 
Shaping  hook. 
Bending  hook. 

LINK 

i.  Measuring.  --  When  the  length  of  stock  is  given, 
as  in  this  particular  exercise,  this  operation  is  unneces- 
sary. However,  if  the  stock  must  be  cut  from  a  longer 

bar  of  iron,  it  is  necessary 
to  determine  what  length 
of  iron  is  necessary  to  make 
a  link  of  the  required  size. 
Let  Fig.  180  represent  the 

FIG.  180.-  MEASURING    THE    LENGTH    Hnk   to    be    made.       An    in- 
OF  IRON  NECESSARY  FOR  LINK.  speCtion       of      this       figure 

210 


,>;  . 


CHAIN  AND  HOOK 


211 


shows  that  it  consists  of  two  semicircles,  one  at  each 
end,  and  two  straight  pieces,  one  on  each  side.  The 
outside  dimensions  of  the  link  are  4"  X  if"  and 
the  stock  is  f"  round.  We  take  all  measurements 
along  a  center  line,  indicated  by  the  broken  line  in 
Fig.  i.  This  line  has  a  radius  of  y|"  at  the  two  ends 
and  a  length  of  . 

0 


FIG.  181.  —  ENDS  OF  LINK  SCARFED. 


2j"  along  each  of 

the   two    straight 

sides.      The    two 

semicircles    make 

a  complete  circle 

with    a    diameter 

of  if",  and   as   the  circumference  of  a  circle   equals 

3.1416  times  the  diameter,  the  circumference  of  this 

circle  along  the  middle  line  equals  4yV'-     The  length 

of  the  two  sides  equals  2  times  2j",  or  4!".     The  total 

length  is  8{f ".     The  length  of  stock  required  when  we 

make  allowance  for  welding  is  10". 

2.    Bending.  —  The    operation    of   bending    is    very 

simple.    It  has  been  explained  in  the  lesson  on  the  Staple. 

3.    Scarfing.  - 
Scarfing  the  ends 
of  the  link  to  be 
welded     consists 
of     flatting     out 

FIG.  182. — SCARFED  ENDS  OF  LINK  READY  FOR  WELDING. 

the  ball  peen  of 

the  hammer  or  over  the  edge  of  the  anvil  so  that  when 
bent  around,  the  ends  will  overlap  for  the  weld. 

Fig.   181    shows   the   two  ends   scarfed  ready  to  be 
bent  together,  and  Fig.   182  shows  them  overlapped. 


212 


BLACKSMITHING 


FIG.  183  —SCARFING 

ENDS  OF  LINK  OVER 

EDGE  OF  ANVIL. 


Figure  183  shows  the  method  of  holding  the  link  over 
the  edge  of  the  anvil  in  scarfing.     Hammer  the  end 
at  a  down  until  it  looks  like  the  ends  in  Fig.  181,  then 
reverse    and    scarf   the    other   end    on 
the   opposite   side    in    the    same   way. 
Figure    184    shows    how   to    hold    the 
link  and  hammer  when  scarfing  with 

tne  ball  Peen  on  tne  ^ace  of  the  anvil. 

4     Welding.  —  In  heating  a  piece  of 

f    t  &  r 

soft  iron  or  mild  steel,  the  metal  gets 
softer  and  softer  until  it  becomes  pasty  and  then  melts  ; 
and  if  the  heating  is  continued,  the  iron  burns  and 
becomes  worthless.  There  is  a  point  of  temperature  at 
which  if  two  pieces  are  placed  together, 
they  will  stick,  or  be  welded  so  that 
they  cannot  be  pulled  apart  when  cold. 
First,  then,  it  is  necessary  to  heat  the 
iron  to  a  proper  temperature,  a  welding 

r       *\     .      . 

heat.     Second,  it  is  necessary  to  force 

the  pieces  of  iron  together  by  hammer- 

ing.     Third,  it  is  necessary  to  hammer  the  joint  to  the 

proper  shape. 

If  the  iron  is  heated  too  rapidly,  the  surface  comes  to 
a  welding  heat  before  the  interior,  and  a  strong  joint 
is  impossible.  If  the  iron  is  burned,  a  weld  is  impossible. 
If  the  iron  is  heated  in  a  dirty  fire,  one  full  of  slag  and 
cinders,  the  particles  of  slag  get  into  the  weld  and 
prevent  a  strong  joint.  If  the  edges  of  the  scarf  are  too 
thin,  they  will  cool  so  quickly  as  to  get  below  the  weld- 
ing heat  before  the  union  can  be  made,  and  a  weld  will 
not  be  complete.  If  the  scarfs  have  not  been  lapped 
far  enough,  the  welded  joint  will  be  smaller  than  the 


184.  —  SCARFING 

ENDS  OF  LINK  WITH 

BALL  PEEN  HAM- 


CHAIN  AND  HOOK  213 

rest  of  the  iron,  and  consequently  the  weakest  part  of 
the  link.  In  view  of  these  facts  it  is  necessary  to  have 
the  following  : 

(1)  A  clean  fire  of  coke.     Clean  out  all  the  cinders 
and  pile  the  coke  into  a  mound  over  the  tuyere.     Turn 
on  the  blast  and  place  the  ends  of  the  link  in  the  middle 
of  the  fire,  just  above  the  tuyere,  but  not  too  close  to 
the    latter,  or   the  cold    blast  will    prevent  a  welding 
heat. 

(2)  The  iron  must  be  raised  to  the  proper  temperature. 
If  two  pieces  of  the  same  size  are  to  be  welded,  they 
will  heat  evenly ;    but  if  the  two  pieces  are  unequal  in 
size,  the  larger  will  heat  more  slowly,  hence  it  should 
be  placed  in  the  fire  before  the  other. 

(3)  It  is  necessary  to  heat  the  iron  clear  through  to 
a  welding  heat,  and  not  merely  on  the  surface.     You 
can  do  this  better  with  a  slow  fire  than  with  one  burn- 
ing fiercely. 

(4)  The  thin  edges  of  the  scarf  must  be  welded  down 
first,  as  they  will  cool  most  rapidly.     After  the  edges 
are  stuck,  then  the  rest  of  the  iron  can  be  welded  into 
a  good  strong  joint. 

(5)  Lap  the  scarfs  far  enough  so  that  the  welded 
joint  will  be  larger  than  the  rest  of  the  iron,  then  it 
can  be  drawn  down  to  size  ;  but  if  the  weld  is  too  small, 
it  cannot  be  upset  except  with  great  difficulty. 

In  most  welds,  the  ends  to  be  welded  should  be  upset 
before  they  are  scarfed  so  as  to  insure  the  proper  size ; 
but  in  the  case  of  the  link,  the  upsetting  will  be  unneces- 
sary, as  the  lap  will  provide  enough  extra  metal  to  insure 
a  good  size  to  the  joint.  If  the  weld  has  not  been  entirely 
successful,  reheat  the  iron  and  finish  it.  Remember 

FARM    SHOP    WORK 15 


2I4 


BLACKSMITHING 


that  no  amount  of  hammering  will  weld  iron  that  is 
not  at  the  welding  heat,  and  that  quick  light  strokes 
will  weld  just  as  surely  as  strong  heavy  blows  and  will 
not  reduce  the  size  of  the  iron  so  much.  When  the 
second  link  has  been  welded,  and  the  third  is  ready  for 
welding,  place  the  two  welded  links  on  the  third  before 
welding  it?.  Continue  this  until  a  chain  of  the  proper 
length  has  been  made.  The  length  will  be  determined 
by  the  use  to  which  the  chain  is  to  be  put  when  com- 
pleted. 

RING 

i.    Measuring. — The  inside  diameter  of  the  ring  is  3"; 
and  as  the  iron  is  f "  round,  the  diameter  of  the  middle 


__^ 

which,  when 
making      al- 

7  ^ 

fnefs  v/>s*f   reacfy    tor  scarS'iff.                   -"-3 

// 

^^=2j*N.               means    a 
*"        ^%\          10",    the 

the    weld, 
circumference   of 
length    of   stock 

required. 

2.  Scarfing.  —  Upset    the 
ends,  and  scarf  them  to  a 
point,  remembering  to  scarf 
them  on  opposite  sides. 

3,  4.    Bending   and  weld- 
ing.—  Bend  in  the  shape  of 
a  ring  with  the  ends  over- 
lapping.    Before  closing  the  ring,  place  the  end  link  on 
the  ring  and  weld.     The  process  of  bending  and  weld- 
ing are  the  same  as  those  given  for  the  link. 


FIG.  185.  —  STEPS  IN  MAKING  RING. 


CHAIN  AND   HOOK 


215 


HOOK 

1.  Measuring.  --The  length  over  all  is  3^"  and  the 
diameter  of  the  middle  line  at  the  curve  is   i".     The 
point    returns    for    a    distance    of   2". 

This  makes  a  total  length  of  7"  along 
the  middle  line. 

2.  Fullering.  -  -  Fullers  are  used  in 

rounding    FIG.  1  86.—  USING  TOP 


^j  -  ,T 

r^_       ' 


rig.  ioo.;      r- 
77-         0      }  

—^j— 
O 

Fig.    187 
shows     the 

v/////////////// 

L^L 

Corners     and    AND  BOTTOM  FULLERS. 

K/"-1      making     grooves.      The     top 

FIG.  187.  —  STOCK  FULLERED.        r   11  r   ^     i        •   i  i          11 

fuller  is  fitted  with  a  handle, 
and  the  bottom  fuller  has  a  stem 
that    fits   into    the    square    hardy 
hole  in  the  end  of  the  anvil.     (See 

FIP\  i£ 

FIG.  189. — END  DRAWN  OUT. 

piece  When   FIG.    1 88.  —  FLATTING    OUT 

fullered  to  a  depth  of  ^fc".     Ham-        THE  FULLERE»  END- 
mer  down  the  end  until  flat  and  round  and  f"  thick 
(Figs.  1 88  and  189).  ^ 

3.    Punching    eye.  -  -  With 
the  punch  placed  in  the  center    >  ~^     i 

of  the  flattened   head,  punch  {  u      } 

one  half  through  the  hot  iron   FlG.  IQ0.- STEPS  m  PUNCHING 
(Fig.  190).     Reverse  the  iron  THE  EYE. 

and   punch   from  the   other   side.      Drive   the    punch 

through  from  each  side,  enlarg- 
ing the  hole.  (See  Fig.  191.) 
The  edges  of  the  hole  should 

FIG.  191.  —  EYE  PUNCHED  IN       .  . 

END.        be  rounded  on  the  horn  or  the 


2l6 


BLACKSMITHING 


FIG.  192.  —  ENLARGING  THE  EYE 
OVER  THE  HORN. 


anvil  by  holding  it  as  shown 
in  Fig.  192  and  hammering 
around  the  outside  edges,  mak- 
ing a  smooth  round  eye  with 
the  metal  the  same  thickness 
all  around. 

4.  Shaping  the  hook.  —  The 
hook  should  be  shaped  complete 
before  being  bent.  Figure  193 
shows  the  shape  required.  Begin  hammering  at  the  eye 
and  work  towards  the  tip.  A  hook  has  a  tendency 
to  straighten  out 
when  strained,  so 
to  prevent  this  it 
must  be  strongest 
at  the  bend  ;  there- 
fore at  that  place 
the  iron  is  left 
widest  and  thickest.  The  end  view  in  Fig.  193  shows 
the  best  way  to  taper  the  iron  towards  the  back. 

5.  Bending  the  hook.  —  Bend 
the  hook  as  in  Fig.  194.  Re- 
member that  the  middle  point 
of  the  bend  must  be  opposite  the 
eye  of  the  hook. 

The  opening  in  the  hook  should 
be  \"  so  as  to  easily  accommodate 
the  f "  links.  This  form  of  a  hook 
is  called  a  grab  hook,  because  it 
will  grab  or  hold  a  chain  at  any 
place,  as  the  opening  is  not  large 
enough  for  a  link  to  slip  through  except  flatways. 


FIG.  193.  —  SHAPE  OF  HOOK  BEFORE  BENDING. 


FIG.  194.  —  COMPLETED  HOOK. 


LESSON  XXXVIII 


SWIVEL 

STOCK 

I  pc.  iron  f  "  X  I"  X  4" 
i  pc.  iron  f "  round,  6"  long 


Hammer 
Punch 


TOOLS 


OPERATIONS 


Fullers 
Swages 


i. 


Fullering. 

2.  Drawing  out. 

3.  Punching. 

4.  Swaging  head. 

5.  Shaping  ring  and  welding. 

6.  Upsetting  pin  in  place. 

7.  Welding  link. 


i.  Fullering. --The 
head  of  the  swivel  must  be 
left  full  size ;  so  on  each 


•  i          c       i_        i        j       r   11         FIG.  195.  — IRON  FOR  LINK  OF  SWIVEL. 

side    of    the    head,    fuller 

down  to  within  \"  of  the  bottom,  leaving  a  block  i" 
long,  as  in  Fig.  196,  in  the  middle  of  the  bar.     Fuller 

on  the  top  and  two 
sides,  but  not  on  the 
bottom.  In  this  first 
operation,  use  the  top 


FIG.  196.  —  IRON  FULLERED. 


217 


218 


BLACKSMITHING 


fuller  only,  but  when  fullering  the  sides  use  both  the 
top  and  bottom  fullers. 

2.  Drawing  out.  —  Draw  out  the  two  ends  to  \" 
round ;  make  them  even  the  entire  length,  and  smooth 
down  with  the  top  and  bottom  swage  as  in  Fig.  197. 
A  swage  is  a  small  tool  with  the  face  grooved.  Most 


FIG.  197.  —  IRON  DRAWN  OUT. 

swages  have  a  semicircular  groove,  but  some  have  angu- 
lar grooves.  They  come  in  pairs  and  in  different  sizes. 
A  top  swage  has  a  handle  like  a  flatter  and  a  top  fuller, 
while  the  bottom  swage  has  a  stem  that  fits  into  the 
square  hardy  hole.  These  tools  are  generally  used 
to  give  a  finish  to  the  work.  (See  Fig.  198.) 

3.  Punching.  -  -  The  hole  for  the  stem  of  the  eye  or 
ring  can  be  punched  with  a  small-sized  punch  and  then 
enlarged  by  using  larger  punches. 
The  hole  must  be  perfectly  round 
and  straight  in  order  that  the 
swivel  may  work  easily. 

4.  Swaging  the  head.  -  -  When 
the  hole  has  been  finished,  fit  into 
it  a  pin  of  \"  round  iron  or  steel 
and  hammer  the  head  round,  using 
the  hammer  at  first,  then  the  top 
and  bottom  swages  to  finish.  (See 
Fig.  198.)  This  operation  will  be 
rather  difficult,  but  by  taking 
pains  one  can  make  a  good  looking  head.  The  pin 
must  be  kept  in  the  hole  during  the  operation  to 


FIG.  108.  —  SWAGING  TOOLS 


SWIVEL 


219 


prevent   it   from  being  hammered   out  of  round    and 
reduced  in  size. 

5.    Shaping  ring  and  welding.  —  In  shaping  the  ring, 
bend  the  two   ends  ^ —          -   3k"  -          — H 

of  the  round   piece 
of  iron  as  shown  in 
Fig.  199.  Then  bend      FlG-  z"-~ FlRST  BENDS  IN  PIN  OF  SWIVEL- 
the  middle  part  into  a  ring  over  the  horn  of  the  anvil, 
weld  the  two  parts  of  the  stem  together  and  draw  down 

to  a  round  stem  \"  in  diam- 
eter (Fig.  200).  Use  the 
top  and  bottom  swages  in 
finishing. 

6.    Upsetting  pin  in  place. 
.^fded.      -Before  upsetting  the  pin, 
bend  the  two    arms    of  the 
FIG.  200.  — MAKING  EYE  IN  PIN  OF    link  as  in  Fig.  2Oi  and  scarf 

the  two  ends  for  welding,  but 

leave  them  far  enough  apart  so  that  the  hammer  can 
be  used  between  them  in  upsetting  the  stem  of  the  ring. 
Heat  the  stem 
of  the  ring  to 
almost  a  weld- 
ing heat,  and 
introduce  it  in- 
to the  hole 
and  upset,  hold- 
ing the  tongs 
against  the  leg  for  support.  The  upsetting  should  be 
done  in  one  heat,  as  it  will  not  do  to  heat  the  link  and 
ring  together  or  the  head  of  the  link  will  be  hammered 
out  of  shape.  Therefore,  heat  the  stem  to  a  high 


FIG.  201.  — END  SCARFED  FOR  WELDING. 


22O 


BLACKSMITHING 


temperature  and  work  rapidly  while  the  iron  remains 
hot.  The  stem  should  not  be  upset  too  much  or  it  will 
bind  when  the  arms  are  welded  together,  and  the  swivel 
will  be  useless  because  it  will  not  swivel. 

7.    Welding  the  link.  —  Weld  the  arms  together  and 
shape  as  represented  by  Fig.  202. 


FIG.  202.  —  COMPLETED  SWIVEL. 


LESSON  XXXIX 
TONGS 

There ,  are  a  great  variety  of  tongs  used  for  various 
purposes,  as  bolt  tongs  used  for  holding  bolts,  pick-up 
tongs  used  in  picking  up  small  pieces  of  hot  iron  from 
the  floor,  tire  tongs  used  in  holding  tires,  etc. 

STOCK 

2  pcs.  of  iron  \"  X  i"  X  8J" 
i  pc.  of  iron  f "  round,  2"  long 

TOOLS 

Hammer  Flatter 

Tongs  Swages 

Fuller  Punch 

Sledge 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Fullering. 

2.  Drawing  and  flatting  jaws. 

3.  Drawing  and  swaging  handles. 

4.  Grooving  jaws. 

5.  Punching  holes. 

6.  Riveting  bolt. 

i.  Fullering.  —  Make  a  chalk  mark  if"  from  one 
end  of  one  of  the  long  pieces  of  iron,  and  fuller  down 
to  a  depth  of  \" .  The  chunk  of  metal  between  the 
groove  and  end  is  to  be  drawn  out  for  the  jaw.  (All 
operations  given  here  are  the  same  for  the  two  jaws.) 

221 


222 


BLACKSMITHING 


\\"  from  the  groove  just  fullered,  fuller  another 
groove  to  the  same  depth,  but  on  the  opposite  edge 
of  the  iron. 

2.  Drawing  and  flatting  jaws.  —  Draw  down  the 
jaws  until  they  are  f"  thick  at  a  and  J"  thick  at  the 
end  b.  In  drawing  the  jaw  down  to  this  thickness  it 
will  spread  out  sideways,  and  care  must  be  taken  that 


FIG.  203.  —  STEPS  IN  MAKING  TONGS. 

it  spreads  in  one  direction  only.  To  secure  this,  lay  it 
on  the  edge  of  the  anvil  and  hammer  the  opposite  edge 
flat  and  even  with  the  side  of  the  piece  of  iron.  When 
the  jaw  has  been  drawn  to  the  proper  shape  and  size, 
shape  it  up  smooth  with  the  flatter  or  set  hammer. 

3.  Drawing  and  swaging  handles.  —  Draw  out  the 
handle  from  the  fullered  groove  to  the  end,  taper- 
ing from  \"  square  at  the  shoulder  to  \"  round  at  the 
end.  This  drawing  will  be  rather  heavy  work  for  the 
hammer,  so  it  will  be  better  to  have  some  one  help  by 
using  the  sledge,  which  is  a  heavy  hammer  with  a  longer 
handle  and  intended  to  be  swung  with  two  hands.  One 


TONGS  223 

must  be  careful  in  using  the  sledge  not  to  strike  too 
hard,  as  a  heavy  blow  on  the  anvil  will  injure  both  the 
anvil  and  sledge.  When  the  handle  has  been  roughed 
out  to  size  with  the  sledge,  finish  the  work  with  the  top 
and  bottom  swage. 

4.  Grooving  jaws.  —  If  the  tongs  are  to  be  used  in 
holding  round  stock,  the  jaws  should  be  grooved  with 
the  top  fuller  and  the  bottom  swage ;    but  if  the  tongs 
are  for  flat  work  as  well  as  round  or  square  stock,  they 
should  be  grooved  slightly  with  the  top  fuller  but  not 
swaged      The  drawing  shows  how  to  hold  the  jaw  when 
grooving  it  for  round  stock.     It  is  held  in  the  same  way 
for  flat  stock  except  that  the  jaw  rests  on  the  face  of 
the  anvil  instead  of  on  the  swage. 

5.  Punching  holes.  —  Punch  a  f "  hole  in  the  joint, 
punching  from  both  sides  so  as  to  get  the  sides  of  the  hole 
straight  and  parallel.     The  j  aws  should  be  fitted  together 
with  the  rivet  in  place,  but  not  riveted,  as  it  will  prob- 
ably be  necessary  to  do  some  fitting  and  shaping  before 
they  will  fit  and  work  smoothly.     If  one  is  longer  than 
the  other,  it  can  be  upset,  or  the  shorter  one  drawn  out ; 
and  the  joint  must  be  very  smooth  and  flat  in  order 
to  have  the  tongs  work  well  and  close  completely. 

6.  Riveting  the  bolt.  —  Upset  one  end  of  a  piece  of 
f "  round  iron  or  steel,  using  a  heading  tool  to  make 
a  rivet  head;   cut  it  off  i\"  long  and  heat  and  drop  in 
the  hole ;    and  then  rivet  the  other  end  with  the  ball 
peen  of  the  hammer,  taking  care  that  it  is  not  riveted 
so  tight  that  the  jaws  cannot  be  moved  when  the  iron  is 
cold.     When  a  heavy  pair  of  tongs  is  wanted,  make  the 
jaws  out  of  heavy  iron  and  the  handles  out  of  lighter 
stock  so  as  to  make  the  work  of  drawing  down  easier. 


LESSON  XL 

WRENCH 

STOCK 

I  pc.  iron  \\"  x  I"  X  5" 
I  pc.  iron  ij"  X  i"  X  4" 

TOOLS 

Hammer  Hot  chisel 

Tongs  Fullers 

Punch  Flatter 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Fullering. 

2.  Punching. 

3.  Shaping  jaws. 

4.  Welding  and  shaping  handle. 

1.  Fullering.  —  Instead  of  making  this  wrench  from 
one  bar,  two  pieces  of  different  sizes  are  used  so  as  to 
reduce  the  labor  of  drawing  down  so  much  stock  for 
the  smaller  end  of  the  wrench.     Two  inches  from  one 
end  of  the  larger  iron,  fuller  down  each  edge,  and  round 
this  end  up  approximately  circular. 

2.  Punching.  —  Punch  a  \"  hole  in  the  center,  and 
with  a  hot  chisel  cut  a  piece  out  of  the  end  along  the 
dotted  lines  (Fig.  204).    A  hot  chisel  is  made  for  cutting 
hot  iron,  while  a  cold  chisel  is  made  for  cutting  cold 
iron.     The  hot  chisel  is  tempered  the  same  as  the  cold 

224 


WRENCH 


225 


chisel,  but  the  blade  is  slimmer  and  the  edge  is  not 
so  blunt.  The  hot  iron  soon  takes  the  temper  out  of 
it,  so  it  must  frequently  be  retempered.  One  should 
never  be  used  for  the  other. 


-scarf 

FIG.  204.  —  STEPS  IN  MAKING  A  WRENCH. 

3.  Shaping  the  jaws. --The   jaws    are    shaped   up 
over  the  horn  of  the  anvil,  and  keeping  in  mind  that 
the  greatest   strain  will   come  at  the   shoulders,  they 
should  be  kept  as  thick  as  possible  at  these  points.     Be 
sure  that  the  inside  edges  are  kept  parallel,  and  that 
the  end  of  the  opening  curves  slightly  so  as  to  accom- 
modate hexagonal  nuts  and  heads. 

The  smaller  end  of  the  wrench  is  worked  up  the  same 
way.     Make  the  openings  f "  and  \" . 

4.  Welding  and  shaping  handle. -- When  the  jaws 
are  completed,  the  two  pieces  can  be  welded  and  the 
handle    shaped.      As   the   ends    must    be     upset,   two 
methods  are  given,  either  of  which  will  make  a  strong 


226  BLACKSMITHING 

joint  if  properly  done.  In  the  ordinary  lap  weld,  the 
ends  are  scarfed  and  then  lapped  and  welded.  In  the 
split  weld,  one  end  is  split  and  the  other  upset  to  fit 
into  the  split.  One  advantage  of  the  split  weld  is  that 
one  man  can  make  it,  while  the  lap  weld  is  more  easily 
made  with  a  helper,  though  one  man  can  do  it,  if  ex- 
perienced enough.  Be  careful  not  to  get  the  edges  too 
thin.  When  properly  welded,  draw  down  the  handle 
to  the  shape  of  the  completed  wrench. 


LESSON  XLI 

HARNESS   HOOK 

STOCK 

I  pc.  iron  2"  x  ij"  X  f" 

I  pc.  iron  f"  diameter,  6"  long 

TOOLS 

Hammer  Drill  or  punch 

Tongs  Flatter 

Swage 

OPERATIONS 

1.  Drawing  out  hook. 

2.  Scarfing  plate  and  hook. 

3.  Welding  and  punching  holes. 

i.  Drawing  out  hook.  —  Draw  out  the  iron  for  the 
hook  in  a  straight  piece,  working  from  the  large  end 
toward  the  small  end.  If  you  were  to  reverse  the  direc- 
tion, the  small  end  would  get  so  hot  on  account  of  its 
smaller  size  that  it  would  burn  before  the  larger  part 
was  hot  enough  to  work. 

Draw  the  piece  approximately  round  the  entire  dis- 
tance, and  when  straight  and  smooth,  finish  with  the 
swages.  As  the  sectional  views  in  Fig.  205  indicate,  the 
hook  is  not  round  the  entire  distance,  but  elliptical  for  a 
part  of  the  way ;  so,  with  the  flatter,  flatten  out  slightly 
until  it  is  of  the  dimensions  given  in  the  drawing.  The 
tip  should  be  upset  slightly  and  rounded  ofF  into  the 
form  of  a  ball  so  as  to  prevent  any  cutting  or  scratching 
of  the  harness. 

227 


228 


BLACKSMITHING 


2.  Scarfing  the  plate  and  hook.  -  -  The  large  end 
of  the  hook  is  upset  and  scarfed  as  for  a  lap  weld.  The 
plate  is  scarfed  by  hammering  a  depression  in  the  sur- 
face along  one  side  with  the  ball  peen  of  the  hammer. 
This  will  force  some  of  the  metal  to  bulge  out  beyond' 
the  edge.  Do  not  let  it  get  too  thin.  This  is  a  dif- 
ficult weld  to  make  properly. 


7?: 


FIG.  205.  —  STEPS  IN  MAKING  A  HARNESS  HOOK. 

3.  Welding  and  punching  holes. — The  two  pieces  can- 
not be  held  together  and  welded  very  easily  by  one  man, 
so  a  helper  will  be  needed.  Heat  both  pieces  to  the 
welding  heat,  and  place  together  quickly  on  the  anvil. 

Hammer  down  the  tip  of  the  hook  first  and  then 
reverse  and  hammer  down  the  scarf  on  the  plate  ;  after- 
wards weld  the  body  together.  It  may  take  two  heats 
for  this  weld.  Unless  it  is  a  complete  success,  the  hook 
will  not  be  strong  enough  to  hold  any  weight,  as  most  of 
the  strain  comes  on  the  weld.  Drill  or  punch  two  holes 
for  the  screws,  and  bend  up  the  hook  to  the  proper  shape. 


LESSON  XLII 


IRONS   FOR   WAGON  JACK 

1.  Take  two  pieces  of  iron  of  the  dimensions  given 
in  Fig.  206,  and  lay  off  a  distance  of  4"  on  each. 

2.  Bend  at  this  point  as 
shown  in  the  drawing.     (It 
is  not  necessary  to  have  a 
square  corner.) 

3.  On  the   shorter   piece 
lay  off  a  distance  of  \"  from 
the  corner.    Heat  and  bend 
back  at  right  angles,  making 
the  piece  parallel  with  the 
longer  piece. 


4.  Heat  end  a  and  lay  it  FlG  2o6._lRON3  FOR  WAGON  JACK. 
on  the   block   of   soft   iron 

found  between  the  horn  and  the  face  of  the  anvil. 
With  a  hot  chisel  and  sledge,  cut  around  an  arc  of 
a  circle. 

5.  Punch  or  drill  screw  holes  and  hole  for  pin. 


•    FARM    SHOP    WORK 1 6 


229 


LESSON  XLIII 
IRONS   FOR  THREE-HORSE   EVENER 

i.  The  irons  for  the  three-horse  evener  are  \"  thick 
and  2"  wide.  Each  of  the  four  that  connect  the  single- 
trees to  the  doubletree  is  represented  by  a,  Fig.  207. 
They  are  8"  long.  The  holes,  which  are  \"  in  diameter, 
are  6"  apart.  The  irons  connecting  the  doubletree  to 
one, end  of  the  evener  are  represented  by  b,  c,  and  d. 
b  is  9"  long ;  and  the  holes,  which  are  J"  in  diameter, 
are  G\"  apart,  c  and  d  are  n|"  long;  and  the  holes, 
which  are  f  "  in  diameter,  are  9"  apart.  These  two 
irons  are  bent  in  a  reverse  curve  4"  from  one  end  and 
3  "  from  the  other  end  ;  and  the  amount  of  the  offset  is  2". 
Irons  e  and  /  and  g  connect  one  singletree  to  the  other 
end  of  the  evener.  e  is  15"  long;  and  the  holes  are 
\2\"  apart.  One  of  them  is  f"  in  diameter  and  the 
other  is  \"  in  diameter,  /is  nf"  long;  and  the  holes, 
both  of  which  are  \"  in  diameter,  are  9! "  apart.  This 
iron  is  bent  in  a  reverse  curve  2"  from  one  end  and  4" 
from  the  other  end;  and  the  offset  is  2".  g  is  \2\" 
long;  and  the  holes,  one  of  which  is  f"  in  diameter 
and  the  other  \"  in  diameter,  are  9!"  apart.  This  is 
bent  in  a  reverse  curve  5J"  from  one  end  and  if" 
from  the  other  end;  and  offset  is  2". 

Make  the  following  bolts  and  rivet :  3  bolts  f "  X  4" 
with  a  small  hole  3^"  from  the  head,  for  a  cotter  pin; 
5  bolts  \"  X  3"  with  a  small  hole  2\"  from  the  head, 
for  a  cotter  pin ;  I  rivet  \"  X  i"  to  rivet  together  pieces 
e,  /,  and  g. 

230 


s- 


V 


*I 


I 


231 


232 


BLACKSMITHING 


2.  If  hooks  as  shown  in  Fig.  208  are  to  be  used  at 
the  ends  of  the  singletrees,  make  them  of  \"  round  iron. 
One  end  of  each  is  drawn  out  to  a  blunt  point  and  then 

lapped  over  the  shoulder 
of  the  hook.  Enough 
clearance  must  be  left  at 
the  lap  so  that  the  cock- 
eye of  the  tug  will  slip 
in  the  hook.  The  hooks 
are  threaded  and  fas- 
tened to  the  singletrees 


r 


Gthcls.  per-  inch. 

FIG.  208.  —  SINGLETREE  HOOKS. 


with  nuts  and  washers. 
3.  Clips  as  shown  in 

Fig.  209  are  better  for  the 

ends  of  the  singletrees  than  the  hooks  shown  in  Fig.  208. 
For  the  flat  rings  covering  the  ends  of  the  singletrees, 


FIG.  209.  —  CLIPS  FOR  ENDS  OF  SINGLETREES. 

it  will  be  necessary  to  measure  carefully  the  circum- 


IRONS   FOR  THREE-HORSE   EVENER  233 

ference  of  the  ends  and  calculate  the  amount  of  stock 
necessary  to  make  a  good  fit,  after  allowance  has  been 
made  for  the  split  O 

weld.    The  iron  for  ^^ JJ 

this  flat  ring  should 
be  about  i"  wide 
and  \"  thick.  It 
will  be  necessary  to 
rivet  into  the  mid- 
dle of  this  piece  a 
staple  to  keep  the 

,        ,  ,  FIG.  210.  —  IRONS  FOR  RING  AND  STAPLE  OF  CLIP. 

hook  on   the   ring. 

When  it  is  riveted  in  place,  the  hook  must  be  inside 
the  staple.  Punch  two  holes  i"  apart  and  in  the 
middle  of  the  length,  then  lay  aside  until  the  other  two 
pieces  are  prepared.  (Fig.  210.) 

4.  The  staple  is  simply  tapered  at  each  end  down 
to  J"  diameter,  but  not  to  a  point,  and  bent  as  shown 
in  Fig.  210. 

5.  The  round  iron  for  the  hook  is  f  "  in  diameter  and 
is  tapered  at  one  end  and  scarfed   at  the  other  end  for 
a  lap  weld.     Bend  the  large  end  until  it  meets  the  iron 
again  3"  from  the  point.     Weld  it  at  this  place  and 
bend    the   point  around,  making  a  hook.     Place  this 
hook  in  the  staple,  and  rivet  the  ends  of  the  staple 
in  the  holes  punched  for    them.     It   will    be    well   to 
make  a  split  weld  of  the  piece  for  the  ring,  as  it  is  flat 
and  thin.     To  do  so,  split  each  end  for  a  distance  of 
|"  and  hammer  down  to  a  blunt  edge ;   then  bend  one 
piece  up  and  the  other  down.     Then   form  the  strip 
into   a   ring   and  fit  the  split    scarfs   together.     Weld 
and    finish   smooth    and    round. 


LESSON  XLIV 


f/rst 


IRONS   FOR   PLANK  DRAG 

1.  For  the  eye  bolt  in  the  plank  drag  you  will  need 
9"  of  \"  round  iron.     (Fig.  211.) 

2.  Scarf  one  end  for  a  lap  weld. 

3.  Five      inches 

Un       .,  ..TT— --  Q-_^- — ""~!  ^     from  the  other  end 
iH~ zm^  :~  I  "_~X.        bend    the    rod    at 

right  angles,  taking 
care  that  the  scarf 
is  on  the  outside 
so  that  when  it  is 

r  bent  around  it  will 

fit  on  the  rod. 

4.  Weld  the  eye 
and    cut    a   thread 
on   the   other    end 

to  which  you  can  fit  a  nut.  The  chain  can  be  attached 
to  the  eye  with  a  split  link  or  a  clevis.  The  making 
of  the  chain  and  ring  has  already  been  described. 


IK 


FIG.  211.      IJGLT  FOB  PLANK  DRAG. 


234 


LESSON  XLV 


IRONS  FOR  COMBINATION  LADDER 

i.  Each  of  the  two  side  pieces  that  hold  the  ladder 
support  is  cut  out  of  thin  iron  along  the  dotted  lines 
shown  in  Fig.  212,  and  a  hole  is  drilled  for  the  bolt  i" 
from  the  round  end  a.  The  other  holes  are  for  the 
screws  and  should  be  countersunk.  The  end  b  should 
be  cut  at  the  same  angle  that  the  steps  are  placed 
with  the  stringers. 


r 


FIG.  212.  —  IRONS  FOR  COMBINATION  LADDER. 

2.  Each  of  the  narrow  straps  is  drilled  for   screws 
and  is  fitted  around  the  end  of  the  support  above  the 
slot  to  strengthen  it. 

3.  The  iron  hooks  are  laid  out  upon  the  plates  with 
a  soft  pencil,  and  are  then  cut  with  a  cold  chisel  on  a 
cast-iron  plate  or  on  the  soft  spot  of  the  anvil. 

235 


236  BLACKSMITHING 

The  whole  should  be  filed  up  smooth.  The  lip  a 
should  be  bent  down  at  right  angles,  to  the  right  on 
one  hook  and  to  the  left  on  the  other,  to  serve  as  a  lift 
for  the  fingers  when  raising  the  hook  from  the  rung  of 
the  ladder.  It  is  quite  necessary  that  these  hooks  fit 
nicely,  so  it  will  be  well  to  try  them  before  finally  fit- 
ting them  permanently  in  place. 

4.  The  long  bolt  is  made  from  J"  round  iron,  and 
should  be  long  enough  to  connect  the  two  broad  iron 
straps. 


LESSON  XLVI 


If 

HJ 

i 


IRON  FOR  LEVELING  ROD 

i.  A  piece  of  strap  iron 
or  heavy  soft  brass,  Fig. 
213,  can  be  used  for  this 
slide.  It  is  laid  out  with  a 
pencil ;  and  a  line  I  \"  from 
each  end  is  drawn  across 
the  piece,  leaving  2"  in  the 
middle.  Two  other  lines 
\"  from  each  end  complete 
the  laying  out.  The  two 
ends  are  bent  down  at  right 
angles.  At  the  lines  \" 
from  each  end  the  iron  is 
bent  out  again.  The  screw  holes  are  then  drilled. 


213.  —  IRON  FOR  LEVELING  ROD. 


237 


LESSON  XLVII 

IRONS   FOR  FARM  GATE 

i.  For  each  hinge  of  the  farm  gate  three  pieces  of 
iron  are  needed.  The  dimensions  of  each  piece  are 
given  in  Fig.  214.  Bend  the  end  of  each  flat  piece 
around,  making  a  lap  weld  so  as  to  leave  a  f "  hole  at 


FIG.  214.  —  HINGE  FOR  FARM  GATE. 

the  end.  It  will  be  well  to  run  a  \"  drill  through  this 
hole  to  smooth  it  out.  Drill  and  countersink  the  screw 
holes. 

2.  Draw  out  one  end  of  the  spike  to  a  sharp  round 
point ;    scarf  the  other  end,  and  weld  into  an  eye  with 
a  \"  hole  in  the  eye. 

3.  The  pin  is  upset  at  one  end,  and  placed  in  the 
eye  of  the  spike  and  welded  there. 

238 


LESSON  XLVIII 
IRONS   FOR  CATTLE  RACK  AND  CORN  RACK 

No  dimensions  can  be  given  for  the  irons  for  the  corn 
rack,  as  they  will  depend  upon  the  kind  of  wagon  used. 


FIG.  215.  —  HOOKS  FOR  STANCHION  OF  CATTLE  RACK.    (Two  of  each  size.) 

The  irons   for  the  stanchion  of  the    cattle    rack    are 
shown  in  Fig.  215. 

239 


LESSON  XLIX 


IRONS  FOR  WAGON  BOX 

i.  Each  of  the  8  strips  used  to  fasten  the  crosspieces 
on  to  the  side  boards,  is  rounded  at  one  end  for  a  dis- 
tance of  3";  and  is  made  f"  in  diameter.  This  rounded 
end  is  threaded  for  a  nut  and  the  other  end  is  bent  to  fit 
over  the  top  edge  of  the  side  boards  (Fig.  216). 


m 


i 


FT1? 

P ~^^-j3^ri  ,?• 


.   FIG.  216.  — IRONS  FOR  WAGON  Box. 

2.  The  four  brackets  used  on  the  sides  of  the  box  are 
made  from  f "  round  iron  bent  in  the  shape  shown  in 
the  drawing.  The  lower  end  of  each  is  threaded  for 
a  distance  of  4"  and  the  upper  end  flattened  out  and 
a  bolt  hole  punched. 

240 


IRONS  FOR  WAGON   BOX  241 

3.  The    two  strips    that    hold    up  the    foot    rest  in 
front  are  made  of  the  same  material  as  the  strips  for 
the  sides.     Seven  inches  from  one  end  they  are  bent 
in  the  shape  indicated.     Both  ends  are  flattened  and 
bolt  holes  punched  in  them. 

4.  The  two  brackets  for  the  foot  rest  are  made  of 
f"  round  iron   12"  long,  bent  in  the  shape  shown  in 
Fig.  216,  flattened   at  the  ends,  and  punched  for  the 
bolts. 

5.  The  end  gate  rods  are  bent  at  one  end  into  an 
eye  2"  in  diameter,  and  welded.     A  round  button  of 
f"  iron  is  slipped  on  the  rod  and  welded  up  close  to  the 
eye  to  furnish  a  smooth  bearing  for  the  eye.     The  other 
end  is  threaded. 

6.  The  nut  with  a  curved  handle,  called  a  tail  nut, 
is  made  to  fit  the  threaded  end  of  the  end  gate  rod. 
It  is  forged  out  of  a  round  bar  of  iron,  the  end  of  which 
is  made  into  an  eye  in  the  same  way  as  the  spike  of  the 
gate  hinge,  the  eye  is  flattened  down  smooth  and  a  hole 
bored  and  threaded. 

7.  The  plate  or  washer  that  is  made  for  each  end  of 
the  end  gate  rod,  is  fastened  on  the  side  boards  by  two 
screws.     Some  prefer  to  have  the  washer  threaded  at 
one  end  instead  of  having  a  tail  nut,  which  is  frequently 
lost.     This  washer  is  forged  by  welding  on  to  its  middle 
a  piece  of  round  iron  cut  from  an  inch  bar,  and  drilling 
it  the  required  size.     The  plate  is  then  cut  diamond- 
shaped  with  the  hot  or  cold  chisel ;  and  the  two  holes 
are  then  bored  in  the  ends  for  the  screws. 


LESSON  L 

TOOL   STEEL 

Wrought  iron  contains  practically  no  carbon  and 
cannot  be  used  for  tools  because  it  cannot  be  hardened. 
Tool  steel  contains  a  small  percentage  of  carbon  and 
can  be  hardened  and  tempered ;  therefore  it  can  be 
used  in  tool  making.  The  amount  of  carbon  in  tool 
steel  determines  the  degree  of  hardness  it  will  attain 
when  hardened.  High  carbon  steel,  or  high  temper 
steel,  has  a  large  percentage  of  carbon ;  and  low  carbon, 
or  low  temper  steel,  has  a  small  percentage  of  carbon. 

Low  carbon  steel  can  be  welded,  but  with  more  diffi- 
culty than  wrought  iron.  The  more  carbon  steel 
contains,  the  more  difficult  it  is  to  weld. 

Tool  steel  must  be  treated  differently  from  wrought 
iron  in  forging.  It  must  not  be  heated  so  high  or  it 
will  burn  and  crumble  under  the  hammer.  Heat  to 
a  red  heat  for  all  forging,  and  do  not  hammer  cold. 

Tempering. -- Tempering  tool  steel  consists  of  two 
processes:  (i)  hardening,  and  (2)  drawing  the  temper. 
Heat  a  piece  to  a  cherry  red  and  dip  it  in  water.  The 
steel  is  now  as  hard  as  it  can  be  made  and  a  file  will 
not  cut  it.  It  is  also  very  brittle,  and  a  blow  of  the 
hammer  will  shatter  it;  consequently,  it  is  of  little 
value  for  tools  that  have  to  be  driven  with  the  hammer 
or  sledge.  If  the  piece  is  slowly  and  carefully  reheated, 
the  hardness  will  gradually  disappear,  and  if  heated 

242 


TOOL  STEEL  243 

long  enough,  it  will  be  as  soft  as  it  was  before  harden- 
ing. In  order  to  temper  steel  properly,  it  should 
be  hardened  "  right  out  "  and  then  the  temper  drawn 
until  it  is  of  the  proper  hardness  and  toughness  for  the 
work  expected  of  it.  Heat  to  a  cherry  red  ;  and  plunge 
the  end  in  water  for  a  short  distance,  leaving  a  portion 
above  still  hot.  The  heat  from  above  will  gradually 
soak  down  into  the  hardened  point,  softening  it,  and 
if  the  point  is  smooth  and  bright,  different  colors  will 
appear  on  the  bright  surface.  In  order  to  get  a  bright 
surface  on  which  the  colors  may  be  easily  detected,  after 
hardening,  rub  the  surface  with  a  piece  of  broken 
grindstone,  emery  wheel,  smooth  file,  or  sandpaper. 

The  first  color  to  appear  will  be  a  pale  yellow,  or 
straw  color,  to  be  followed  in  order  by  dark  straw  color, 
brown,  light  purple,  dark  purple,  pale  blue,  and  finally 
dark  blue.  As  soon  as  the  proper  color  appears,  the 
piece  should  be  plunged  all  over  in  the  water.  Tools 
requiring  steel  of  great  hardness  should  be  tempered 
to  a  straw  color ;  tools  of  soft  steel  should  be  tempered 
at  the  dark  blue  color. 

Punch.  —  Using  a  piece  of  round  or  octagon  steel, 
forge  it  down  to  the  shape  of  the  punch  shown  in  Fig. 
217  and  do  not  heat  above  a  cherry  red  in  forging. 
When  hammered  to  shape,  grind  or  file  smooth  and 
round.  Then  heat  the  tapered  end  to  a  cherry  red  and 
dip  in  water,  holding  the  punch  vertically.  Dip  to  a 
distance  of  about  one  inch,  and  withdrawing,  rub  the 
surface  hardened  with  something  to  brighten  it ;  and 
then  watch  for  the  colors,  as  they  will  appear  when  the 
heat  from  above  soaks  down  to  the  hardened  part. 
When  the  purple  color  gets  down  to  the  point,  plunge 


244 


BLACKSMITHING 


FIG.  217.  — PUNCH  AND  COLD  CHISEL. 


in  water  all  over.  Test  with  a  file,  and  if  it  is  too  soft, 
reheat  and  harden  and  temper  over  again.  Unless  you 
know  just  the  amount  of  carbon  in  the  steel,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  experiment  a  little  with  different  degrees 

of  heat  in  harden- 
ing and  tempering, 
until  you  can  pro- 
duce the  desired 
results. 

Cold  chisel. - 
Forge  a  cold  chisel 
like  that  shown  in 
Fig.  217,  and  harden  and  temper  in  the  same  way  as  the 
punch.  Use  the  flatter  in  smoothing  up  the  sides  of 
the  taper. 

In  grinding  tools,  take  care  not  to  heat  them  enough 
to  draw  the  temper,  or  you  will  get  them  too  soft. 

Casehardening.  —  Casehardening  is  preparing  wrought 
iron  or  steel  of  low  carbon  so  that  there  is  a  coating 
of  high  carbon  steel  on  the  surface,  while  the  interior 
remains  soft  and  tough. 

The  thickness  of  this  coating  is  determined  by  the 
length  of  time  the  process  is  carried  on.  It  is  similar 
to  the  old  cementation  process  of  making  steel,  which 
consisted  in  heating  the  iron  in  a  box  filled  with  chips 
of  leather,  horn,  or  charcoal,  until  the  carbon  had 
soaked  into  the  iron,  transforming  it  into  steel.  It  will 
not  be  necessary  to  follow  this  method,  for  we  do  not 
need  a  very  thick  coating  of  carbon  on  the  pieces  that 
are  usually  casehardened.  If  the  piece  is  heated 
red  hot  and  plunged  in  a  box  of  powdered  cyanide  of 
potassium,  the  carbon  from  this  chemical  will  soak  into 


TOOL   STEEL  245 

the  iron  for  a  distance  depending  on  the  length  of  time 
it  is  left  there.  When  the  piece  is  suddenly  cooled 
by  quenching  in  water,  the  surface  is  as  hard  as  though 
it  were  tool  steel  all  through.  If  a  wearing  surface  is 
casehardened,  it  lasts  longer  and  wears  smoother. 
Ends  of  set  screws  and  the  faces  of  small  hammers  are 
casehardened,  and  sometimes  bolts,  when  there  is  to  be 
considerable  wear  on  them.  Cyanide  of  potassium  is 
a  very  powerful  poison,  and  if  there  are  any  sores  or 
cuts  on  the  hands,  it  will  be  well  to  wear  gloves  while 
using  the  cyanide,  as  very  dangerous  cases  of  poisoning 
have  resulted  from  carelessness  in  its  use. 


FARM    SHOP    WORK If 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE 
WORK 

LESSON   LI 
CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE 

Portland  cement  is  made  from  clay  and  limestone 
pulverized  and  burned  at  a  high  temperature ;  the  mass 
is  then  pulverized  a  second  time  and  sifted,  whereupon 
it  is  ready  for  use. 

Natural  cement  is  made  from  limestone  that  has 
about  the  same  composition  as  the  artificial  cement. 
The  process  of  manufacture  is  much  the  same  as  that 
by  which  Portland  cement  is  made. 

Concrete.  —  In  making  concrete  for  any  purpose, 
sand  and  gravel  or  crushed  rock  are  mixed  with  cement 
and  water.  The  sand  and  gravel  are  used  simply  to  fill 
up  space  and  thus  make  it  unnecessary  to  use  so  much 
cement,  as  the  latter  is  very  expensive.  The  cement 
binds  the  particles  of  sand  and  gravel  together,  making 
artificial  stone.  The  sand  should  be  clean  and  coarse. 
Experiments  show  that  rounded  grains  of  sand  give  as 
good  results  as  sharp  sand,  and  that  as  small  a  per- 
centage of  dirt  as  5  per  cent  is  objectionable.  Sand 
of  a  varying  degree  of  coarseness  is  better  than  that  of 
uniform  coarseness.  The  proper  size  of  the  crushed 
rock  or  gravel  depends  upon  the  use  to  be  made  of  the 
concrete.  Plain  concrete  can  be  made  of  coarser  gravel 
than  reenforced  concrete. 

246 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE 


247 


A  sieve  with  a  i"  mesh  for  plain  concrete  and 
one  with  a  f"  mesh  for  reenforced  concrete  has  been 
found  satisfactory.  Gravel  of  varied  sizes  has  been 
found  better  than  that  of  uniform  size. 

Proportions.  -  -  The  proportions  of  the  various  in- 
gredients depend  upon  the  use  required. 

A  rich  mixture  used  in  water  tanks,  arches,  and  reen- 
forced concrete  floors  subject  to  vibration,  is  made  in 
the  proportion  of  i  :  2  :  4 ;  that  is,  i  part  cement,  2  parts 
sand,  and  4  parts  gravel  or  rock;  or  i  part  cement  and 
4  parts  sand.  This  is  probably  the  best  concrete  used 
for  any  purpose. 

An  ordinary  mixture  of  I  :  3  : 6  can  be  used  for  cellar 
and  barn  floors,  sidewalks,  foundations,  and  abutments. 

A  lean  mixture,  1:4:8,  may  be  used  in  large  heavy 
foundations  for  stationary  loads,  or  for  backing  for 
masonry ;  richer  mixtures  are  necessary  for  loaded 
columns,  beams,  arches,  and  foundations  laid  under 
water. 

Mixing  concrete.  —  Concrete  can  be  mixed  either 
by  hand  or  by  machinery.  Whatever  method  is  used 
in  mixing  the  concrete,  the 
following  points  must  be 
looked  after  :  (i)  the  exact 
amount  of  cement,  sand, 
and  stone  must  be  meas- 
ured out ;  (2)  the  mass 
must  be  thoroughly  mixed  ; 

(3)  the  proper  amount    of        FIG.  218.  — PLATFORM  FOR  MIXING 

water     must      be     used;  CONCRETE. 

(4)  the    concrete   must    be   thoroughly    rammed. 
Hand  mixing.  —  A  suitable  platform  may  be    con- 


248        CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  WORK 

structed  of  i"  planed  boards,  nailed  to  cleats  or  cross- 
pieces  of  2"  X  4' '.  The  size  of  this  platform  is  de- 
termined by  the  amount  of  work  to  be  done.  One 
10'  x  12'  will  be  large  enough  for  all  ordinary  purposes, 
and  one  considerably  smaller  will  do  for  small  jobs  and 
repair  work. 

The  platform  should  be  placed  as  near  the  work  as 
possible  and  in  such  a  position  that  the  sand  and  gravel 
can  be  unloaded  near  it.  It  is  well  to  nail  a  strip  around 
the  edges  of  the  platform  to  prevent  the  cement  from 
spilling. 

A  measuring  box  can  be  made  of  rough  inch  boards 
of  a  size  that  can  be  handled  conveniently.  It  should 

be  made  with  project- 
ing handles  and  with- 
out bottom  and  top. 
The  cement  is  measured 
and  spread  out  on  the 
platform  with  a  rake, 
and  the  sand  measured 
over  it.  The  mass  is 
thoroughly  mixed  by 

FIG.  219.  —  MEASURING  Box  FOR  CONCRETE.       |  v         • 

shoveling  it  over  to  one 

side  of  the  platform  and  then  back  again,  and  repeat- 
ing the  operation  until  the  mixture  shows  a  uniform 
color.  Then  it  is  spread  out  in  a  layer  about  6" 
thick,  and  the  gravel  or  crushed  stone  measured  and 
placed  on  top.  Over  this  the  required  amount  of  water 
is  poured,  and  mixed  thoroughly  by  shoveling  the  mass 
over  two  or  three  times. 

A  wet  concrete  is  a  mixture  containing  enough  water 
to  make  the  mass  flow.  This  is  simply  poured  into  the 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE 


249 


molds  and  allowed  to  harden.  When  the  molds  are 
complex  or  reenforcing  rods  are  laid  near  the  surface, 
the  wet  mixture  is  necessary  to  fill  the  mold  properly. 

A  dry  mixture  is  one  which  will  not  flow,  and  re- 
quires ramming  in  order  to  fill  the  mold  properly. 
A  dry  mixture  will  just  show  water  on  the  surface  when 
properly  rammed. 

Ramming  is  unnecessary  in  wet  mixtures ;  but  in 
ordinary  mixtures  it  is  advisable  and  necessary  to  a 
strong  piece  of  work.  A  ram  can  be  made  of  a  piece 
of  2"  X  4"  timber  nailed  to  a  handle. 
For  dry  mixtures  a  larger  ram  made  of 
iron  should  be  used,  and  the  concrete 
should  be  rammed  until  the  water 
shows  on  the  surface.  Spade. 

Spading.  -  -  The  ramming  will  have 
the  effect  of  forcing  some  of  the  stones 
against  the  surface  of  the  molds, 
which,  if  allowed  to  remain  there, 
would  make  an  unsightly  appearance.  FlG  220.  — SPADE  AND 
To  overcome  this,  run  a  flat  spade 
down  between  the  forms  and  the  con- 
crete, pushing  the  stones  back  from  the  surface,  and 
allowing  the  cement  to  flow  into  the  space  thus  formed. 
Do  not  pry  the  concrete  enough  to  spring  the  forms 
out  of  shape. 

Bonding.  —  New  cement  can  be  bonded  to  old  con- 
crete so  as  to  make  water-tight  joints  if  great  care  is 
taken  in  washing  the  joints  with  liquid  cement  made 
of  equal  parts  of  cement  and  sand.  In  construction 
work  when  all  the  concrete  is  not  laid  the  same  day,  it 
is  well  to  make  a  joint  on  top  of  the  last  concrete.  Lay 


RAM   FOR 
WORK. 


Ram 


CONCRETE 


250  CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  WORK 

a  piece  of  timber  2"  X  4"  or  of  any  suitable  dimensions 
in  the  top  layer  of  concrete.  Take  it  out  before  laying 
the  new  concrete,  wash  the  joint  thoroughly,  and  cover 
with  rich  cement,  i  :  i. 

Freezing.  —  Sometimes  the  smooth  surface  of  con- 
crete will'  peel  off,  due  to  freezing,  but  otherwise  it  does 
not  seem  to  be  affected  by  freezing.  In  very  cold 
weather  the  materials  used  in  making  concrete  should 
be  warmed  to  prevent  freezing  before  setting.  The 
addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  salt  to  the  water  used 
lowers  the  freezing  point.  About  one  pound  of  salt  to 
a  sack  of  cement  will  do  no  harm  and  may  keep  the 
cement  from  freezing  until  it  has  set.  No  load  should 
be  placed  on  concrete  until  the  weather  is  warm  enough 
to  allow  it  to  set  properly. 

Time  for  setting.  —  It  takes  from  12  to  48  hours  for 
concrete  to  set,  depending  upon  the  weather,  the  con- 
sistency of  the  concrete,  and  the  thickness  of  the  work. 
Wet  and  cold  weather  will  retard  the  setting  of  the  con- 
crete. Arch  work  requires  a  longer  time  for  setting 
than  walls.  Dry  concrete  sets  much  more  quickly 
than  wet  concrete. 

Forms.  -  -  The  lumber  for  concrete  forms  makes 
quite  an  item  of  expense,  and  therefore  one  should 
devise  ways  of  getting  results  with  the  minimum  amount 
of  lumber.  Green  lumber  is  better  than  kiln-dried 
lumber,  because  the  latter  soaks  up  too  much  of  the 
water  from  the  concrete,  and  swells  and  warps  too 
much.  If  the  lumber  is  smooth  on  the  inside  of  the 
forms,  it  produces  better  looking  work ;  however,  rough 
lumber  may  be  used  in  most  form  work,  and  afterwards 
it  may  be  used  in  framing  buildings  or  for  repair  work. 


CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE 


251 


Forms  should  be  kept  from  the  sun  when  not  in  use, 
and  the  insides  should  be  coated  with  oil  or  soft  soap 
just  before  using.  Forms  should  be  designed  so  that 
they  can  be  taken  apart  and  used  again  for  the  same 
work ;  and  should  be  so  well  made  that  the  water  and 
cement  cannot  leak  out  through  the  joints. 


Tongue  and  groove  boards.  Beveled  boards. 

FIG.  221.  — LUMBER  FOR  CONCRETE  FORMS. 

Tongued  and  grooved  lumber  makes  the  best  forms, 
but  beveled  or  even  squared  lumber  will  do,  if  well 
matched. 

The  thickness  of  the  lumber  used  depends  upon  the 
distance  between  the  studs,  and  the  height  of  the 
green  concrete.  For  ordinary  work  done  on  the  farm, 
one-inch  lumber  reenforced  by  2"  X  4"  studs  every  two 
feet  has  proved  satisfactory.  The  forms  should  be  so 
rigid  that  there  is  no  bulging  of  the  sides. 


LESSON  LII 

SIDEWALKS  AND   FLOORS 

Sidewalks. -- The  climate  and  the  character  of  the 
soil  very  largely  determine  the  method  of  laying  the 
foundations  for  sidewalks.  It  is  important  to  have  a 
good  foundation,  for  one  that  is  poorly  laid  will  cause 
the  ruin  of  the  best  walk.  It  should  be  laid  so  as 
not  to  hold  water,  which,  by  freezing,  might  bulge  and 
crack  the  cement ;  therefore,  a  porous  soil  will  not 
require  so  thick  a  foundation  as  an  impervious  one. 
Likewise,  in  a  mild  climate,  foundations  need  not  be  so 
thick  as  in  a  severe  one.  As  a  rule,  foundations  should 
be  laid  from  4"  to  10"  thick. 

Suppose  we  wish  to  build  a  sidewalk  consisting  of 
a  4"  layer  of  concrete  resting  upon  a  6"  foundation, 
with  the  surface  of  the  walk  2"  above  the  level  of  the 
ground.  Excavate  to  a  depth  of  8".  Fill  in  6"  of 
crushed  rock,  gravel,  or  cinders,  tamping  it  thoroughly 
as  it  is  being  filled.  Do  not  postpone  the  tamping' 
until  all  the  filling  is  done,  but  level  off  each  load  and 
tamp  the  successive  layers  so  that  the  entire  founda- 
tion may  be  firm,  but  porous.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  wet 
down  the  foundation  as  it  is  being  tamped,  for  in  this 
way  it  can  be  made  more  compact. 

252 


SIDEWALKS  AND  FLOORS  253 

The  excavation  should  extend  three  or  four  inches 
on  each  side  of  the  walk  to  allow  for  drainage.  Place 
2"  X  4"  stringers  on  each  side  on  top  of  the  founda- 
tion. These  stringers  must  be  perfectly  straight,  and 
the  inside  surfaces  should  be  smooth. 

Drive  stakes  down  outside  the  stringers  to  hold  them 
in  place. 

The  proportion  usually  required  for  sidewalks  is 
1:2:4.  Mix  with  sufficient  water  to  make  the  concrete 
moderately  wet,  and  tamp  until  water  appears  on  the 


cemenf 


Concrete 
C/rtc/ers 

FIG.  222.  —  A  CONCRETE  SIDEWALK. 

surface.  The  finishing  coat  is  made  of  I  :  I  mixture, 
which  is  spread  on  about  i"  thick.  A  strong  bond 
between  the  finishing  coat  and  the  concrete  must  be 
made  or  the  cement  will  in  time  chip  and  peel  ofF.  To 
prevent  this,  coat  the  surface  with  pure  cement  before 
making  the  bond.  It  is  sometimes  spread  on  the 
concrete  before  the  latter  has  set.  The  finishing  coat 
is  leveled  off  by  drawing  a  straightedge  over  the 
edges  of  the  stringers.  After  straightening  out  the 
surface,  smooth  with  a  float  and  groove  with  a  jointer. 


254  CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  WORK 

It  is  desirable  to  make  a  slight  slope  to  the  outside  of 
the  walk  to  drain  off  the  water.  The  grooves  are 
placed  in  the  walk  so  that  portions  may  be  replaced 
or  relaid  without  the  difficulty  of  cutting  out  portions 
with  a  chisel.  The  jointer  can  be  used  to  round  the 
outer  edges  of  the  walk  so  that  all  four  edges  of  the 

block  will  be  rounded.  If  the 
surface  of  the  cement  is  troweled 
too  much,  it  will  not  wear  well. 
The  walk  must  be  kept  covered 
and  wet  for  two  or  three  days 
after  being  laid,  to  allow  it  to 
dry  uniformly  throughout  the 
mass,  rather  than  on  the  surface. 
^  °°  A  good  covering  is  wet  sawdust 

FIG.  223.  —  FLOAT  AND  JOINTER. 

or  wet  sand. 

Sometimes  the  walk  is  laid  out  so  that  alternate 
blocks  are  laid  and  allowed  to  set ;  then  the  remaining 
blocks  are  filled  in.  This  necessitates  placing  2"  x  4" 
crosspieces  for  the  alternate  blocks  and  removing  them 
when  the  remaining  blocks  are  filled  in. 

Cellar  floors. -- These  may  be  laid  without  any 
foundation  because  there  is  no  danger  of  any  frost 
getting  under  them. 

The  process  of  laying  a  floor  is  similar  to  that  of 
laying  a  sidewalk,  and  the  mixture  is  made  in  the 
same  proportions.  The  size  of  the  sections  in  the 
cellar  floor  may  be  made  larger  than  those  in  a 
walk,  and  the  stringers  removed  as  soon  as  the  cement 
has  set. 

Barn  floors  are  laid  in  the  same  way  as  sidewalks, 
with  the  same  kind  of  foundations,  and  with  cement 


SIDEWALKS  AND  FLOORS  255 

of  the  same  proportions.     The  surface  should  be  left 
rough  or  grooved  to  prevent  animals  from  slipping. 

Expansion  joints.  —  Concrete  expands  and  contracts 
like  iron,  and  in  large  areas  such  as  barn  floors  it  is 
necessary  to  make  provision  for  this  expansion,  because 
of  the  wide  range  of  temperature.  The  best  method  of 
preventing  damage  by  expansion  is  to  lay  the  floor  in 
small  sections  or  blocks.  This  produces  many  cracks 
which  will  take  up  the  expansion. 


LESSON  LIII 
FOUNDATION  WALLS  AND   STEPS 

Foundation  walls.  —  Foundation  walls  for  a  house 
or  a  barn  should  be  from  8"  to  12"  thick  with  a  footing 
of  from  1 6"  to  20",  according  to  the  size  and  weight  of 


-Foof/'n? 
FIG.  224.  —  FOUNDATION  WALL  OF  CONCRETE. 

the  building  to  be  placed  on  them.  Pieces  2"  X  4" 
should  be  driven  in  the  ground  every  2',  and  braced 
by  pieces  of  the  same  dimension,  as  shown  in  the  draw- 
ing, i"  boards  are  nailed  to  the  inside  of  these  pieces 
with  the  bottom  board  about  6"  up  from  the  bottom  of 
the  trench,  allowing  the  concrete  to  flow  out  under  it  to 
form  the  footing. 

256 


FOUNDATION  WALLS  AND   STEPS 


257 


If  the  walls  are  to  be  built  up  a  considerable  distance 
above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the  2"  X  4"  pieces 
should  extend  above  the  last  board,  so  that  the  forms 
that  are  to  be  placed  on  top  can  be  fastened  to  them  and 
so  held  in  line.  All  forms  should  be  carefully  braced 
so  as  to  keep  them  from  bulging.  The  sides  should 
be  spaded  and  the  concrete  cast  in  layers  and  tamped 
carefully.  Use  concrete  of  the  following  proportion  : 
I  part  cement,  i\  parts  sand,  5  parts  gravel  or  crushed 
stone. 

Steps.  —  In  making  the  steps  of  a  porch  or  cellar, 
the  riser,  or  vertical  face,  of  a  step  should  be  propor- 


FIG.  225.  —  CONCRETE  STEPS. 

tioned  to  the  tread,  or  horizontal  surface,  so  that  the 
sum  of  the  two  will  equal  15.  Therefore,  a  step  with 
a  5"  riser  needs  a  10"  tread,  and  one  with  a  6"  riser 
needs  a  9"  tread  to  make  the  two  proportional. 

In  making  concrete  steps,  the  outside  walls  (A,  Fig. 
225)  are  laid  either  on  a  porous  foundation  that  will 
drain  water,  or  they  are  laid  below  the  frost  line. 


258  CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  WORK 

Inside  the  walls  gravel  is  packed  at  the  same  slope 
or  angle  that  the  steps  are  to  be  laid.  Over  this  the 
concrete  should  be  placed  to  a  depth  of  four  inches. 
In  this  concrete,  reenforcing  of  woven  wire  should  be 
placed.  Beginning  at  the  top,  lay  a  plank  upright  and 
brace  with  stakes.  The  plank  should  be  as  wide  as 
the  rise  of  the  steps.  Fill  the  space  between  the  board 
and  the  concrete  slope  with  concrete  to  the  level  of 
the  top  edge  of  the  plank  and  trowel  off  smooth.  When 
the  concrete  has  set,  remove  the  plank  and  place  it  for 
the  next  step.  Continue  in  this  way  until  all  the  steps 
are  complete.  The  steps  should  be  the  same  width  as 
the  walk. 

The  vertical  face  of  each  step  may  be  made  smooth 
by  troweling  on  a  thin  layer  of  rich  cement,  I  :  i,  after 
the  concrete  has  set  and  the  plank  has  been  removed. 

A  nosing  can  be  made  for  the  front  edge  of  the  steps, 
if  it  is  desired,  by  making  a  form  the  shape  and  size 
wanted  and  laying  on  a  thin  top  layer  of  cement  extend- 
ing out  over  the  edge  of  the  step  in  the  nosing.  This 
requires  a  good  deal  of  extra  work  and  is  not  necessary 
in  ordinary  steps. 


LESSON  LIV 
CONCRETE  TROUGHS 

Hog  trough.  —  A  concrete  hog  trough  may  be  made 
by  making  a  bottomless  box  from  4'  to  6'  long,  22" 
wide,  inside  measurements,  and  10"  deep.  Make  a  V- 


FIG.  226.  —  CONCRETE  HOG  TROUGHS.     (Triangular  and  Semicircular  Types.) 

shaped  trough  6"  shorter  than  the  inside  length  of  the 
box,  with  two  boards,  one  of  which  is  13"  wide  and  the 
other  1 2"  wide,  nailed  together  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  as  shown  in  the  upper  part  of  Fig.  226.  This 

259 


260  CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  WORK 

makes  the  two  inner  sides  equal  in  width.  Fit  a  tri- 
angular piece  of  2"  plank  in  the  ends  and  nail  in  place. 
Bevel  the  edges  of  the  two  sides  of  the  trough  so  that 
when  laid  upside  down  on  a  platform  there  will  be  no 
crack  between  the  form  and  the  platform.  Lay  the 
trough  upside  down  on  a  platform  of  smooth  matched 
boards,  and  place  the  bottomless  box  over  it  so  that 
the  two  ends  are  equidistant  from  the  ends  of  the 
trough,  and  the  sides  are  also  equidistant  from  the 
sides  of  the  trough.  The  upper  edges  of  the  box  should 
project  above  the  V  of  the  trough  about  if". 

Pour  the  concrete,  I  part  cement  and  3  parts 
coarse  sand  or  fine  gravel,  into  the  mold  and  tamp 
lightly,  and  smooth  off  the  upper  surface  with  a  float. 
Remove  from  the  forms  in  four  or  five  days  and  paint 
the  inside  with  pure  cement  of  creamy  consistency. 

If  a  semicircular  trough  is  preferred  to  the  V-shaped 
trough,  make  the  form  semicircular  by  cutting  out  two 
semicircular  pieces  from  a  2"  plank,  with  a  *]\"  radius. 
To  these  pieces  nail  narrow  strips  beveled  on  the  edges, 
so  that  when  they  are  nailed  in  place,  there  will  be  no 
cracks  between  the  strips  for  the  cement  to  leak 
through. 

If  the  trough  is  a  long  one,  several  semicircular  pieces 
of  plank  should  be  placed  equidistant  apart.  Reen- 
forcing  of  wire  netting  should  be  used  in  the  casting, 
or  several  iron  rods,  J"  diameter,  should  be  inserted  in 
the  four  corners,  about  i"  from  the  surface. 

Water  trough.  -  -  The  walls  of  a  water  trough  should 
be  at  least  6"  thick  for  those  of  ordinary  size,  and 
much  thicker  for  large  ones.  If  no  reenforcing  is  used, 
make  the  walls  twice  as  thick  to  prevent  cracking. 


CONCRETE  TROUGHS  261 

To  make  it  water-tight,  the  entire  tank  must  be  cast 
at  one  operation.  A  richer  mixture  of  concrete  must 
also  be  used  than  that  used  in  other  pieces  of  work,  and 
the  concrete  must  be  quite  wet. 

Inlet  and  outlet  pipes  can  be  cast  in  the  concrete 
during  the  pouring  if  desired ;  if  not  possible  to  cast 
them  then,  place  greased  plugs  where  they  are  to  go, 
and  insert  the  pipes  afterwards. 

Having  decided  upon  the  size  of  the  trough  desired, 
make  a  bottomless  box  of  this  size,  having  the  sides 
slope  in  towards  the  top ;  that  is,  the  top  of  the  box 
should  be  about  2"  narrower  than  the  bottom. 

For  a  small  trough,  excavate  the  surface  of  the  ground 
down  until  hard  firm  soil  is  reached ;  and  then  tamp 
this  down  flat  and  level.  For  a  large  trough,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  excavate  about  12"  and  make  a  founda- 
tion similar  to  a  concrete  sidewalk.  Lay  down  smooth 
an  8"  layer  of  cinders  or  gravel  and  on  this  a  4"  layer 
of  concrete  of  the  proportions  used  in  building  side- 
walks. On  the  top  of  this  foundation  place  the  box  in 
position  and  brace  in  place,  as  shown  in  Fig.  227. 
The  number  of  braces  needed  will  depend  upon  the 
size  of  the  box.  They  should  be  about  2'  apart.  The 
inside  of  this  form  should  be  smooth  and  greased 
if  you  wish  to  remove  it  without  breaking  it  up. 
The  inside  box  has  a  bottom  in  it,  and  should  be 
at  least  12"  narrower  and  12"  shorter  than  the  out- 
side box  or  form.  This  form  should  slant  in  the  op- 
posite direction  from  the  outside  form ;  that  is,  it 
should  be  narrower  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top 
so  that  it  may  be  readily  removed  when  the  cement 
has  set. 

FARM    SHOP   WORK — l8 


262  CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  WORK 

The  outside  of  the  inner  form  must  be  smooth  and 
greased.  It  should  be  braced  on  the  inside  if  the  tank 
is  over  three  feet  long.  The  depth  of  the  inner  form 
must  be  6"  less  than  that  of  the  outer  form,  so  that 
when  the  two  are  in  place  with  their  upper  edges  on  a 
level,  the  bottom  of  the  inner  form  will  be  6"  from  the 


FIG.  227.  —  FORMS  SET  FOR  CONCRETE  WATER  TROUGH. 

foundation.  The  inner  form  should  be  supported  by 
two  pieces  2"  X  4",  nailed  to  it  by  strips  and  long 
enough  to  project  over  the  ends  of  outer  box.  Place 
the  forms  in  position  so  that  the  walls  are  everywhere 
equidistant,  then  nail  on  two  cleats  that  are  just  long 
enough  to  fit  in  between  the  supports  of  the  inner  form. 
These  cleats  are  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  inner 
form  in  the  proper  place  and  to  prevent  it  from  being 
moved  by  the  tamping  and  spading  of  the  cement. 


CONCRETE  TROUGHS  263 

The  mixture  of  concrete  must  be  rich  in  cement.  Use 
I  part  cement,  i  part  sand,  3  parts  broken  stone  or 
gravel.  If  you  use  gravel  as  it  comes  from  the  bank, 
use  i  part  cement  and  3  parts  gravel.  Have  the  inner 
form  all  ready  and  greased  before  beginning  the  casting, 
and  be  sure  to  mix  enough  concrete  for  the  entire 
trough  before  beginning  the  work.  Spread  concrete 
on  the  foundation,  and  on  this  lay  the  reenforcing  of 
expanded  metal  or  wire  lath,  bending  it  up  on  all  four 
sides  to  within  2"  of  the  top  of  the  trough. 

On  top  of  the  reenforcing,  place  3"  more  of  concrete, 
and  then  put  the  inner  form  in  place  and  fasten  the  re- 
enforcing  of  the  sides  so  that  it  will  be  midway  between 
the  walls  of  the  forms.  Pour  the  concrete  in  place  and 
spade  it  so  that  the  larger  stones  are  forced  away  from 
the  surfaces.  The  inner  form  may  be  removed  in  two 
or  three  hours  and  the  inside  painted  with  pure  cement 
of  creamy  consistency,  using  a  brush.  Do  not  remove 
the  outer  form  for  at  least  ten  days.  If  the  work  is 
kept  covered  and  wet  during  this  time,  the  trough  will 
then  be  ready  for  water.  The  outside  may  be  painted 
with  pure  cement  if  desired.  In  that  case,  remove  the 
outside  form  in  two  days  and  after  wetting  down  the 
outside  of  the  tank,  paint  with  pure  cement,  using  a 
brush. 


LESSON  LV 
FENCE   POSTS 

Concrete  fence  posts  are  being  used  quite  extensively, 
as  they  have  many  advantages  over  the  wooden  posts. 
In  the  first  place,  the  concrete  posts  will  last  forever 
when  properly  reenforced ;  then,  too,  the  cost  is  but  a 
trifle  more  than  for  wooden  posts  of  the  best  quality,  if 
the  labor  is  not  counted  in. 

The  posts,  for  ordinary  purposes,  should  be  6"  square 
at  the  base,  4"  square  at  the  top,  and  7'  long.  If  it 
is  desired  to  place  them  below  the  frost  line,  for  north- 
ern latitudes  they  should  be  made  longer,  but  it  is  not 
necessary  for  them  to  be  placed  so  deep. 

The  corners  above  the  ground  should  be  beveled,  and 
they  should  be  reenforced  with  wire  or  rods,  hooked  at 
the  ends. 

Molds.  —  Make  a  platform  8'  long  by  2'  wide  of 
planks  or  boards  surfaced  on  one  side  and  matched  or 
tongued  and  grooved,  and  fastened  together  with  several 
cleats  2"  X  4".  Then  prepare  the  form  for  casting 
three  posts  at  once.  Use  the  following  pieces  : 

4  pieces  7'  2"  long,  6"  wide  at  one  end  and  4"  wide  at  the 

other,  i"  thick,  (a) 
I  piece    26"  long,  6"  wide,    "  thick,  (b) 


1  piece    20"  long,  4"  wide, 
3  pieces    6"  long,  6"  wide, 
3  pieces    4"  long,  4"  wide, 

2  pieces    6"  long,  2"  wide, 
2  pieces    4"  long,  2"  wide, 


"  thick,  (V) 
"thick,  (d) 
"thick,  0) 
"  thick,  (/) 
"  thick,  (g) 


6  pieces  triangular  in  shape  4'  long,  (h) 
264 


26S 


266  CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  WORK 

Nail  the  2"  strip  /  in  place  at  one  end  of  the  piece  b, 
then  nail  on  one  of  the  blocks  d,  which  are  I "  x  6"  x  6", 
with  just  enough  space  between  it  and  block  /  for  one 
of  the  pieces  a.  Nail  on  the  other  blocks  in  the  same 
way.  Make  the  other  end  in  the  same  way,  using  the 
blocks  which  are  i"X4"x  4"  and  spacing  them  the 
thickness  of  the  strips  a.  Figure  228  shows  the  form 
when  completed  and  put  together.  The  strips  a  are 
not  fastened  in  place,  and  can  be  removed  when  the  con- 
crete is  set,  by  removing  the  two  end  pieces  b  and  c  and 
lifting  the  strips. 

The  triangular  strip  h  is  placed  as  shown  in  the  detail 
drawing  so  as  to  bevel  off  the  two  lower  corners.  The 
two  upper  corners  can  be  beveled  by  pressing  down 
similar  strips  on  top  or  by  troweling  a  bevel  along  the 
two  upper  corners. 

Casting.  —  Use  i  part  cement,  2  parts  sand,  and  4 
parts  gravel  or  crushed  stone.  Spread  the  concrete 
in  each  mold  to  the  depth  of  i"  and  lay  on  this  the  two 
reenforcing  wires  about  i"  from  each  side.  Bend  the 
ends  of  the  rods  over  in  the  form  of  a  hook  so  that  they 
will  come  to  within  2"  of  each  end.  (See  Fig.  229.)  Then 
pour  on  another  layer  of  concrete  to  within  i"  of  the 
top,  place  the  other  two  reenforcing  rods  in  similar 
manner,  and  fill  the  molds  full  of  concrete  over  this 
reenforcement.  Spade  the  sides  well  and  trowel  the 
top  to  make  it  as  smooth  as  possible. 

Some  provision  must  be  made  for  holding  the  wire 
fence  to  the  posts.  One  way  is  to  twist  short  pieces  of 
doubled  copper  wire  No.  12  as  shown  by  x,  Fig.  228, 
and  insert  them  in  the  wet  concrete  at  the  positions 
where  the  wires  of  the  fence  will  come.  Another  way  is 


FENCE   POSTS  267 

to  insert  greased  iron  rods  (y,  Fig.  228)  \"  in  diameter 
in  the  center  of  the  posts,  making  a  round  hole  clear 
through  the  post.  These  rods  can  be  held  in  place  by 
tacking  a  strip  on  top  of  the  forms  where  the  holes  are 
to  be,  and  boring  \"  holes  through  this  strip  so  that 
each  hole  will  be  over  the  middle  of  each  post.  An- 


ct/t  &w&y  fo 
of co/icsete. 


FIG.  229.  —  REENFORCING  WIRES  IN  FENCE  POST. 

other  method  is  to  cast  in  the  post  a  round  hardwood 
plug  to  which  the  wires  may  be  nailed  with  common 
staples.  Sometimes  galvanized  screw  eyes  are  cast  in 
the  posts  and  the  fence  fastened  to  these  by  twisting 
short  pieces  of  wire  around  both. 

If  necessary  to  brace  the  mold  to  keep  the  two  outer 
sides  from  bulging,  a  strip  may  be  tacked  across  the 
top  about  the  middle  of  the  mold.  Corner  posts  should 
be  made  larger  and  longer  than  common  posts. 

As  these  posts  are  quite  heavy,  to  save  handling  they 
ought  to  be  cast  where  they  are  to  be  used.  It  is  possi- 


268        CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE  WORK 

ble  to  cast  braces  to  the  corner  posts  at  the  same  time 
the  posts  are  cast,  but  the  whole  must  be  cast  in  an  up- 
right position ;  but  as  it  requires  a  great  deal  of  skill 
to  make  the  forms  as  well  as  to  pour  the  cement,  it 
should  not  be  attempted  by  the  beginner. 

Hitching  and  clothesline  posts  can  be  made  in  the 
same  way  as  common  posts.  However,  they  should 
be  made  larger  and  with  a  ring  and  staple  cast  in  the 
top.  Bend  the  ends  of  the  staple  in  the  form  of  a  hook, 
to  prevent  its  being  pulled  out.  Forms  should  not  be 
removed  for  three  days  after  casting  and  the  posts 
ought  not  to  be  used  for  two  weeks,  during  which  time 
they  must  be  kept  wet  so  as  to  harden  properly. 


LEATHER   WORK 


LESSON  LVI 

HARNESS  MENDING 

Although  the  mending  of  harness  is  commonly  con- 
sidered to  be  within  the  province  of  the  harness-maker, 
there  is  no  good  reason  why  the  farmer  should  not 
make  many  of  his  own  repairs.  Harnesses  can  be  kept 
in  good  repair  at  very  little  expense.  Although  many  of 
the  processes  seem  complicated,  they  are  really  not  so, 
and  can  be  mastered  easily.  The  purpose  of  this 
lesson  is  to  show  how  simple  repairs  can  be  neatly 
and  strongly  made. 

Thread.  —  A  good  thread  is  necessary  in  making 
strong  and  lasting  repairs.  Good  linen  must  be  se- 
lected, and  considerable  care  exercised  in  making  the 
thread.  Hold  one  end 
between  the  second 
and  third  fingers  of  the 
left  hand;  pass  the 
thread  around  a  nail  or 
hook  and  bring  back, 
catching  between  the 
thumb  and  finger  of 
the  same  hand.  With  the  right  hand,  roll  the  thread 
downward  over  the  knee,  as  shown  in  Fig.  230,  and  pull  it 
apart  with  a  jerk.  The  rolling  untwists  the  strands  and 

269 


FIG.  230.  —  UNTWISTING  THE  STRANDS  or 
THREAD. 


270  LEATHER  WORK 

makes  the  thread  easy  to  break.  Never  cut  or 
break  a  thread  without  untwisting  it,  as  that  would 
produce  a  blunt  end,  while  the  untwisting  leaves  a  fine 
tapering  end.  The  process  is  repeated  until  enough 
strands  have  been  broken  to  produce  a  thread  of  the 
required  strength,  —  three  for  light  work  and  five  or 
six  for  heavy  stitching.  In  putting  the  ends  of  the 
broken  threads  together,  do  not  leave  them  exactly 
the  same  length.  By  leaving  some  shorter  than  others 
a  pointed  thread  is  made,  fine  enough  to  go  into  the 
eye  of  the  needle.  Draw  the  thread  tight  so  there  will 
be  no  loose  strands,  and  wax  the  ends. 

Holding  the  thread  as  shown  in  Fig.  230,  twist  it  by 
rolling  it  with  the  right  hand  over  the  knee.  It  is  kept 
from  untwisting  by  catching  it  up  with  the  thumb 
and  finger  of  the  left  hand.  The  threads  are  not 
doubled  before  twisting. 

Waxing.  --  When  well  twisted  throughout  the  entire 
length,  wax  by  rubbing  well  and  quickly  over  the  entire 
length.  The  ends  should  be  waxed  more  than  the  rest 
of  the  thread  so  the  needle  can  be  attached  more  se- 
curely. If  the  thread  is  twisted  too  much,  it  is  apt 
to  knot  in  using.  The  thread  may  be  smoothed  after 
waxing  by  rubbing  it  with  a  piece  of  soft  leather.  Wax 
is  used  on  the  thread  to  give  it  strength  and  smoothness, 
and  to  preserve  it.  Cobbler's  wax  may  be  obtained 
from  the  harness-maker  or  the  shoemaker.  It  is  made 
of  pitch  and  resin,  in  equal  parts,  heated  and  thoroughly 
mixed.  To  this  is  added  a  small  quantity  of  tallow 
in  hot  weather  and  a  larger  quantity  in  cold  weather. 
If  the  thread  becomes  sticky,  smear  some  fat  on  the 
fingers  and  rub  the  entire  length. 


HARNESS  MENDING 


271 


FIG.  232.  — PRICKING  WHEEL. 


Threading  the  needle.  —  A  single  thread  is  used  and 
a  needle  is  attached  to  each  end.  The  needle  must  be 
threaded  securely  .  -  -  » »  ^  

and    in    such    a   way     FIG.  231.  — TWISTING  THE  END  OF  THE  THREAD 

that      the      thread  AFTER  THREADING  THE  NEED^E- 

where  it  leaves  the  eye  is  not  thicker  than  the  needle. 

If  it  is  larger,  it  will  soon  wear  out  or  the  needle  wrill  be 

broken   in   stitching.     Pass    about   two   inches   of  the 

thread     through     the 
eye,    twist     the     end 
around  the  thread  and 
rub  down  smooth. 
Stitching.  -  -  When 

good  work  is  required,  mark  out  the  line  of  stitching 

with  the  compass  and  run  a  pricking  wheel  over  this 

line   (Fig.   232).      The 

points  on  the  wheel  cut 

into   the    leather    and 

make    distinct    marks 

where  the  holes  are  to 

be  made  with  the  awl 

(Fig.  235). 
The  sharp  edges   of 

the    leather    must    be 

removed  with  an  edg- 
ing  tool.      To    obtain 

an  even  thickness  and 

a   smooth   surface  the 

ends    of    the     leather 

must  be  beveled  before 


fdg/ng  Too/ 


Round  Knife 


FIG.  233.  — EDGING  TOOL  AND  ROUND  KNIFE. 


stitching.    This  is  done 

by  shaving  the  ends  with  a  round  knife  (Fig.  233). 


272  LEATHER  WORK 

The  work  while  being  stitched  is  held  in  a  sewing 
horse.  The  awl  is  pushed  through  from  the  right  side. 
When  the  first  hole  has  been  made,  the  needle  is  passed 
through  from  the  left  side  and  the  thread  drawn  through 


FIG.  234.  —  STITCHING  WORK  HELD  IN  SEWING  HORSE. 

until  an  equal  length  is  on  each  side  of  the  leather.  The 
next  hole  is  made  with  the  awl  and  the  left-hand  needle 
brought  through  this.  When  the  thread  has  been 
drawn  through  about  three  inches,  the  right-hand  needle 
is  passed  through  the  same  hole. 

The  awl  makes  a  diamond-shaped  hole  and  the  left- 
hand  thread  should  be  kept  in  the  angle  nearest  the 


FIG.  235.  —  STITCHING  AWL. 


stitching  already  done,  while  the  right-hand  thread 
must  be  kept  in  the  upper  angle.  This  can  be  accom- 
plished by  pulling  away  a  little  from  the  body  with  the 
right  hand  and  slightly  towards  the  body  with  the  left 
hand.  Pull  both  threads  firmly  at  the  same  time. 


HARNESS  MENDING  273 

When  the  stitching  is  completed,  the  thread  can  be 
fastened  by  turning  back  one  stitch.  Cut  it  off  flush 
with  the  surface  of  the  leather. 

To  obtain  good  stitching,  it  is  necessary  : 

(1)  That  thread  of  a  kind  and  strength  suited  to  the 

nature  of  the  work  be  selected. 

(2)  That  the  thread  be   smooth,  well  twisted,  and 

well  waxed. 

(3)  That  the  stitches  all  be  drawn  equally  tight,  and 

made  firm  without  cutting  the  leather. 

(4)  That  the  needles  be  used  in  the  right  way. 

(5)  That  the  awls  be  correctly  used. 

(6)  That  the  stitches  be  of  equal  length. 

(7)  That  the  holes  be  of  equal  size  and  angle. 

Splicing.  —  In  splicing,  it  is  necessary  to  shave  the 
two  ends  to  be  joined  down  to  a  thin  edge,  Fig.  236, 
with  the  round  knife.  Then  stitch  along  each  edge, 
fastening  the  threads  at  the 
ends.  In  mending  a  broken 
tug,  if  the  break  occurs  at 
any  place  other  than  where 
the  cockeye  is  fastened,  it 
should  be  done  by  splicing, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  236.  If  the 

break  occurs  in  the  loop  holding  the  cockeye,  it  can 
be  repaired  as  shown  in  Fig.  237.  The  illustrations 
show  the  reverse,  or  inside,  of  the  tug.  First,  a 
piece  must  be  cut  out  of  the  inside  layer  and  the 
outside  piece  beveled  with  the  round  knife.  The  in- 
side piece  must  be  beveled  in  the  same  way.  Then 
a  piece  of  new  leather  is  beveled  at  one  end  on  the 


274 


LEATHER  WORK 


FIG.  237.  —  REPAIRING  A  BROKEN  TUG. 


j.  punch  here 


flesh  side  and  at  the 
other  end  on  the 
grain  side.  The 
strip  is  placed 
around  the  cockeye 
and  the  two  ends 
are  stitched  with 
a  seven-strand 
thread. 
Fastening  a  buckle  and  loop.  —  In  stitching  on  a 

buckle  and  loop,  bevel  one  end  of  the  strap  with  the 

round  knife ;  then  make  the  hole  for  the  tongue  of  the 

buckle  by  punching  two  holes,  as  in  Fig.  238,  and  cutting 

out   the    leather    be- 
tween with  the  points 

of   the    round    knife. 

For  the   loop,   cut   a 

strap  long  enough  to 

reach      around      two 

straps  the  size  of  the 

one  used,   and   bevel 

both  ends  on  the  flesh 

side.     Put  the  buckle 

in  place  and  hold  in 

the  sewing  horse  with 

one  end  of  the  loop 

inserted    in    between 

the  two  edges  to  be 

stitched.       Stitch    as 


FIG.  238.  —  INSERTING  A  BUCKLE  AND  LOOP. 


shown  in  the  drawing.  Turn  the  strap  over  and  insert 
the  other  end  of  the  loop  so  that  the  two  ends  meet  in 
the  middle  between  the  straps,  and  stitch. 


SUGGESTIONS    FOR   ADDITIONAL  WORK 

THE  drawings  on  the  following  pages  will  suggest 
additional  work  which  may  be  done  by  pupils  who 
are  more  rapid  in  their  work  and  more  skillful  in  the 
use  of  tools  than  the  other  members  of  the  class.  The 
dimensions  and  other  features  of  the  things  to  be 
constructed  may  be  modified  as  desired  by  teacher  or 
pupils. 


275 


x  .x 

xfc? 


H  <u 

0/2  .§ 

Q  '§ 

z  a 

<  « 

H  W 

X  rt 

o  -S 


276 


FARM    SHOP   WORK — IQ 


277 


Top  View 


Side  View 
FIG.  242.  — BROODER. 


278 


kl 


Jl 


36" 


FIG.  243.  — BROODER,  END  VIEW. 


jecf/o/i  onAB. 


4— 


FIG.  244.  —  BUTTER  WORKER. 
279 


Fnd  V/e>v-  /Jay  tfoc/f. 


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Toft  Mew  -  flay  RocK 

can  be  contserfecf  snto    woot/  s&c 

r~ 

H 

f'fj-  f0*r  jfofres. 

A   j 

~  1 

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ftrfr 


<J/c/e  Mew-Hay  /?GC/(. 
FIG.  245.  — HAY  RACK. 


280 


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si' 


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f     ^ 


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r^jr, 


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r.-j 


1?  ''f* 

frZ-*. 


T 
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FIG.  246.  —  UMBRELLA  RACK. 


281 


FIG.  247.  —  MUSEUM  CABINET. 


282 


Plan  at  A.B. 


Front 


J/'cfe 


FIG.  248.  — BOOKCASE.    Scale,  i"  =  i  ft.     (From  Craftsman  design.) 


283 


48 


—  t  

r    r— 

HS 

&• 

\ 

.:  t       ii  —  H  ^ 

* 

; 

•j 

' 

'                          -1    K2|"                    -12 

- 

\ 

•1 

- 

24 

,    < 

»_    0 

b 
^     -» 

^ 

- 

c 

(V 

1 

J 

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_ 

J 

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FIG.  249.  —  LIBRARY  TABLE. 


FIG.  250.  — DINING  ROOM  CHAIR. 


284 


FIG.  251.  —  REVOLVING  BOOKCASE  AND  TABLE. 


285 


INDEX 


Angles,  for  setting  bevels,  165. 
Annual  rings,  159,  162,  163. 
Anvil,  200. 
Arkansas  stone,  194. 
Ash,  159,  160,  161,  163. 
Assembling,  definition  of,  8. 
Auger  bits,  166. 
Awl,  stitching,  272. 

Backsaw,  173. 

Ball  peen  hammer,  202. 

Barn  floors,  concrete,  254,  255. 

Basswood,  159,  160,  163. 

Beam,  of  bevel,  165. 

of  marking  gauge,  7,  169. 

of  try-square,  6,  174. 
Beech,  159,  163. 
Bench  hook,  1-9. 
Bench  stop,  144. 
Bevel,  21-24,  165. 
Beveled  boards,  251. 
Birch,  71,  159,  160,  161,  163,  164. 
Bitbrace,  166. 
Bits,  166. 

Blacksmithing,  197-245. 
Blade,  of  bevel,  165. 

of  plane,  169,  170. 

of  saws,  173,  175. 

of  steel  square,  177. 

of  try-square,  174. 
Block  plane,  171. 
Board  measure,  180,  181. 
Bolt,  making,  207-209. 


Bonding  concrete,  249. 
Bookcase,    drawings    only,    283, 

285. 

Boxwood,  163. 
Brace  measure,  177-180. 
Braces,  179,  180. 
Broadleaf  trees,  159. 
Brooder,  drawings  only,  278,  279. 
Brush,  glue,  188. 
Buckle  and  loop,  harness,  274. 
Butternut,  159,  160,  163,  164. 
Butter    worker,    drawings    only, 

279. 

Cabinet,  museum,  282. 
Carbon,  in  steel,  242. 
Carborundum,  195,  196. 
Carpenter's  bench,  138-145. 
Casehardening,  244,  245. 
Cattle  rack,  122-126. 
Cedar,  159,  160,  163. 
Cellar  floors,  concrete,  254. 
Cement,  246-268. 
Chain  and  hook,   making,   210- 

216. 
Chair,    dining    room,    drawings 

only,  284. 
Charcoal,  199. 
Checks  in  lumber,  162,  163. 
Cherry,  160,  163. 
Chest,  tool,  146-158. 
Chestnut,  160,  163. 
Chicken  feed  box,  56-60. 
287 


288 


INDEX 


Chicken    house,    drawings    only, 

m  276,  277. 
Chiseling,  16-18. 
Chisels,  167,  168. 
Circle,method  of  cutting,  101, 102. 
Clamps,  185,  186. 
Close-grained  woods,  163. 
Clothes  rack,  36-38. 
Clothes  tree,  39-43. 
Coal,  for  forging,  198,  199. 
Coarse-grained  woods,  163. 
Cobbler's  wax,  270. 
Cockeye,  harness,  273,  274. 
Cocobola,  160. 
Coke,  199. 

Cold  chisel,  making,  244. 
Combination  ladder,  89-95. 
Compass,  25. 
Concrete,  246-268. 

mixing,  247. 
Cooking  glue,  187. 
Corn  rack,  118-121. 
Corundum,  194,  196. 
Cottonwood,  159,  1 60. 
Countersinking,  9. 
Crosscut  saw,  172. 
Cyanide  of  potassium,  245. 
Cypress,  164. 

Dining     room     chair,     drawings 

only,  284. 

Doubletree,  109-112. 
Dowel  holes,  39,  40,  150-153. 
Dowel  pins,  40,  150-153. 
Dowels,  39,  40,  150-153. 
Drawing  out,  iron,  203. 
Drawshave,  168. 
Dry  mixture,  concrete,  249. 

Ebony,  160,  163. 

Edging  tool,  for  leather,  271. 


Elasticity,  of  woods,  161. 
Elm,  159,  160,  161,  163. 
Emery,  194,  196. 
Expansion    joints     in     concrete, 

255- 
Extension  bit,  166. 

Farmer's  level,  96-104. 

Farm  gate,  113-117. 

Filing  saws,  189-196. 

Filler,  wood  finishing,  42. 

Fir,  159,  164. 

Firmer  chisel,  167. 

Flatter,  204-206. 

Fleam,  of  saw  teeth,  173. 

Float,  for  concrete  work,  254. 

Floors,  concrete,  252-255. 

Folding  sawbuck,  27-30. 

Foot  board,  wagon  box,  136. 

Foot  rest,  wagon  box,  137. 

Forge,  197-200. 

Forms  for  concrete,  250,  251. 

Foundation  walls,  concrete,  256. 

Framing  chisel,  167. 

Framing  square,  177-184. 

Freezing,     effect     on     concrete, 

250. 

Fullering,  215. 
Fullers,  215. 

Gate  hook,  making,  204-206. 
Gauge,  marking,  7,  169. 
Gimlet,  167. 
Glue,   in   woodworking,    14,    15, 

185-188. 

Glue  brushes,  188. 
Gouge,  1 68,  169. 
Grain,  of  wood,  163. 
Gravel,  246,  247. 
Grinding  edge  tools,  192-196. 
Grindstone,  193. 


INDEX 


289 


Halved  joint,  12-14. 
Hammer,  ball  peen,  202. 
Hammer  handle,  making,  71-74. 
Hardness,  of  woods,  160. 
Hard  pine,  160. 
Hardwoods,  159. 
Hardy  hole,  of  anvil,  215. 
Harness     hook,     making,     227, 

228. 

Harness  mending,  269-274. 
Hay  rack,  drawings  only,  280. 
Header,  130,  131. 
Heading  tool,  208. 
Heartwood,  160. 
Hemlock,  159,  160,  164. 
Hickory,  71,  159,  160,  161,  163. 
Hinges,  for  level,  100. 
for  farm  gate,  238. 
Hip  rafter,  183. 
Hog  cot,  127-132. 
Hog  trough,  concrete,  259,  260. 
Holly,  1 60. 
Horn,  of  anvil,  200. 
Hot  chisel,  224. 

Iron,  for  leveling  rod,  237. 

wrought,  242. 
Irons,  for  cattle  rack  and  corn 

rack,  239. 
for    combination    ladder,    235, 

236. 

for  farm  gate,  238. 
for  plank  drag,  234. 
for   three-horse    evener,    230- 

233- 

for  wagon  box,  240,  241. 
for  wagon  jack,  229. 
Ironwood,  71,  161. 

Jack  plane,  171. 
Jack  rafter,  183. 


Jointer,  saw,  191. 

for  concrete  work,  254. 

Kerf,  46. 

Kiln-dried  lumber,  163. 

Knife,  marking  with,  3,  4. 

Lap  weld,  212-214. 

Laying  out,  definition  of,  2. 

Letting  in,  definition  of,  65. 

Leveling  rod,  105-108. 

Level  square,  10-19. 

Library    table,    drawings    only, 

284. 
Lignum  vitae,  160. 

Mahogany,  159,  163,  164. 
Maple,  71,  159,  160,  163,  164. 
Marking  gauge,  6,  7,  169. 
Measure,  brace,  177. 

board,  180,  181. 
Measuring     box,     for     concrete, 

248. 

Medullary  rays,  159,  160. 
Miters,  140,  154,  156. 
Mixing  concrete,  247. 
Molds,    for    concrete,    259-263, 

264-268. 
Mortise,  39,  40. 

Mortise  and  tenon  joint,  39,  40. 
Museum  cabinet,  drawing  only, 

282. 

Natural  cement,  246. 
Needleleaf  trees,  159. 
Norway  pine,  160,  164. 
Nosing,  of  steps,  258. 

Oak,  160,  161,  163,  164. 
Octagon  scale,  181,  182. 
Oilstones,  194,  195. 


290 


INDEX 


Osage  orange,  160. 
Oxidizing  fire,  199,  200. 

Palms,  159. 
Paring  chisel,  167. 
Pine,  159,  164. 
Planes,  169-171. 

block,  171. 

jack,  171. 

smoothing,  171. 
Plank  drag  for  roads,  75-78. 
Plumb  bob,  15,  16. 
Poplar,  1 60,  163. 
Porch  chair,  31-35. 
Portland  cement,  246. 
Posts,  concrete,  264-268. 
Pricking  wheel,  for  leather,  271. 
Punch,  making,  243,  244. 
Purlins,  130. 

Rabbet,  149,  150,  155. 

Rafters,  182,  183. 

Rafter  tables,  182. 

Red  oak,  160. 

Redwood,  160. 

Revolving   bookcase    and    table, 

drawings  only,  285. 
Ripsaw,  172. 
Rise,  of  rafters,  182,  183. 
Riser  of  steps,  184,  257. 
Rock  elm,  161. 
Rosewood,  160. 
Round  knife,  for  leather,  271. 
Rule,  171. 

Run,  of  rafters,  182,  183. 
of  stairs,  184. 

Sand,  246,  247. 
Sandpaper,  175. 
Sandpaper  block,  175,  176. 
Sapwood,  1 60. 


Sawbuck,  20-30. 

Saw  jointer,  191. 

Saws,  172,  174,  175. 

Saw  setting,  191,  192. 

Scarfing,  211. 

Scribing,  51. 

Set  hammer,  204,  206. 

Sewing  horse,  79-84. 

Sharpening,  of  chisels,  192,  193. 

of  planes,  192,  193. 

of  saws,  189-192. 
Sheep-feeding  trough,  49-55. 
Shellacking,  34,  38,  42,  43,  158. 
Shrinkage,  of  wood,  161-163. 
Sidewalks,  cement,  252-254. 
Singletrees,  109-112. 
Slips,  194. 
Soft  maple,  160. 
Soft  pine,  163. 
Softwoods,  159. 
Splicing,  leather,  273. 
Split  weld,  226. 
Spokeshave,  25,  168. 
Spring  wood,  159. 
Spruce,  159,  160,  163,  164. 
Spur,  of  marking  gauge,  7. 
Squaring,  definition  of,  3,  6. 
"Staggering"  nails,  140,  141. 
Stains,  42,  43. 
Stairs,  184. 
Stanchion,   of  cattle   rack,    122- 

126. 

Staple,  making,  201-203. 
Steel  square,  177-184. 
Stitching,  harness,  271. 
Stitching  awl,  272. 
Straightedge,  21. 
Strength,  of  woods,  161. 
Summer  wood,  159. 
Surfacing,  4. 
Swaging,  218. 


INDEX 


291 


Swaging  tools,  218. 
Swivel,  making,  217-220. 
Sycamore,  160. 

Target,  for  leveling  rod,  108. 
Tempering  steel,  242,  243. 
Thread,    for    harness    mending, 

269-273. 

Three-horse  evener,  109-112. 
Tongs,  making,  221,  223. 
Tool  chest,  146-158. 
Tool  steel,  242-245. 
Toughness  of  wood,  161. 
Trap  nest,  61-65. 
Tread,  of  stairs,  184,  257. 
Trimmer,  130,  131. 
Turntable,  96,  103,  104. 
Tuyere,  198. 

Umbrella    rack,    drawings    only, 

281. 
Upsetting,  definition  of,  207. 


Valley  rafter,  183. 

Varnish,  42. 

Vise,  of  work  bench,  141-143. 

Wagon  box,  133-137. 
Wagon  jack,  66-70. 
Walnut,  159,  163. 
Warping,  of  lumber,  162,  163. 
Washita  stone,  194. 
Weight,  of  wood,  161. 
Welding,  212-214. 
Western  hemlock,  163. 
White  oak,  160,  161,  164. 
White  pine,  160,  161,  164. 
Wind,  definition  of,  4. 
Woodworking,  1-196. 
Work  bench,  138-145. 
Wrench,  making,  224-226. 
Wrought  iron,  242. 

Yellow  pine,  164. 
Yellow  poplar,  159. 


rxriTTAL  FINE  OF  2E 

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OVERDUE. 


LD  2l-95m-7,'37 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


